1. Immunization Recommendations:
Healthcare Personnel
Immunization Recommendations:
2011 Update
Kathleen Harriman, PhD, MPH, RN Vaccine Preventable Disease Epidemiology Section California Department of Public Health Immunization Branch

2. Background
Ensuring that healthcare personnel (HCP) are immune to vaccine preventable diseases (VPDs) is an essential part of occupational health programs
Prevent transmission of VPDs and eliminate unnecessary work restrictions
Safeguards health of workers and protects patients from exposure to infected workers
Substantially reduces both number of susceptible HCP and risks for transmission of VPDs to other workers and patients

3. Rationale
Prevention of illness through comprehensive employee immunization programs is far more cost-effective than case management and outbreak control
Mandatory immunization programs, which include both newly hired and currently employed persons, are more effective than voluntary programs in ensuring that susceptible persons are vaccinated

4. Vaccination Programs Maintenance of complete immunization records
Policies for catch-up vaccination
Work restrictions for exposed susceptible employees
Control of outbreaks
Additional vaccines may be indicated for laboratories employees or for employees who travel to other parts of the world to perform research or healthcare work (e.g., as medical volunteers in a humanitarian effort)

5. Where do U.S. immunization recommendations come from?
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)
15 experts selected by the U.S. Secretary of HHS to provide advice and guidance to CDC on the control of vaccine preventable diseases; the only entity in the federal government that makes such recommendations
Develops written recommendations for routine administration of vaccines to children and adults in the civilian population; recommendations include age for vaccine administration, number of doses/dosing intervals, and precautions and contraindications
Recommends immunizations for healthcare personnel

6. ACIP Recommendations for HCP
Employer decisions about which ACIP recommended vaccines to include in HCP immunization programs have typically been made by considering the:
Likelihood of HCP exposure to vaccine preventable diseases and the potential consequences of not vaccinating HCP
Nature of employment (type of contact with patients/residents and their environment)
Characteristics of the patient/resident population within the organization

7. Newest ACIP Recommendations
for HCP, 2011

8. Most Recent ACIP Recommendations
Immunization of healthcare personnel, 2011
Hepatitis B, 2006
Influenza, 2011
Influenza vaccine, healthcare personnel, 2006
Diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, 2006
Measles, mumps, rubella, 1998 and 2009 update
Mumps, 2006
Varicella, 2007

9. Vaccines that might be indicated for adults, based
on medical and other indications --- United States, 2011
2011 ACIP adult immunization recommendations

10. CDC Definition of HCP
All paid and unpaid persons working in healthcare settings who have the potential for exposure to patients with influenza, infectious materials, including body substances, contaminated medical supplies and equipment, or contaminated environmental surfaces.
HCP might include (but are not limited to):
physicians, nurses, nursing assistants, therapists, technicians, emergency medical service personnel, dental personnel, pharmacists, laboratory personnel, autopsy personnel, students and trainees, contractual staff not employed by the health-care facility, and persons (e.g., clerical, dietary, housekeeping, maintenance, and volunteers) not directly involved in patient care but potentially exposed to infectious agents that can be transmitted to and from HCP

11. Required Immunizations for California HCP
There are no federal or California state requirements mandating immunization or immunity to VPDs
Some healthcare facilities require immunizations/immunity to specific VPDs as a condition of employment

12. Hepatitis B vaccine – three doses
Vaccine that is required to be offered* per the Cal/OSHA Bloodborne Pathogen standard
Hepatitis B vaccine – three doses
* To all employees who are exposed to blood or other
potentially infectious materials as part of their job duties.
If vaccine is declined, a declination form must be signed.

13. Which employees are covered by the Cal/OSHA ATD standard?
Employees whose exposure from work activity or working conditions is reasonably anticipated to create an elevated risk of contracting any disease caused by aerosol-transmissible pathogens if protective measures are not in place
“Elevated” risk means higher than what is considered ordinary for employees having direct contact with the general public outside of the facilities, service categories, and operations listed in the standard

14. Occupational Exposure
In each included work setting covered by the standard, it is presumed that some employees have occupational exposure; for a particular employee it depends on tasks, activities, and the environment
Includes having contact with, or being within the exposure range of cases or suspected cases of aerosol-transmissible diseases
Employers must identify employees with occupational exposure in order to take protective measures

15. Vaccines that are required to be offered* per the ATD standard
Influenza
Measles
Mumps
Rubella
Tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap)
Varicella-zoster (VZV)
Schedule
One dose annually
Two doses
One dose
One dose, booster as recommended
* To all susceptible employees who might be exposed.
If vaccine is declined, a declination form must be signed.

16. Diseases covered by the ATD standard
Applies to diseases classified by CDC’s Healthcare Infection Control Advisory Committee (HICPAC) as either droplet or airborne*
Novel or unknown pathogens considered airborne
Only “reportable diseases” under Title 17† require exposure investigation
* 2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions:
Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Healthcare Settings †

17. Seasonal Influenza

19. Annual Influenza Vaccination
Offer to all eligible HCP at no cost
Educate re: vaccination benefits and consequences of influenza illness for themselves and their patients
Obtain signed declination forms
Monitor coverage including ward, unit, and specialty-specific coverage rates
Use HCP coverage as a measure of patient safety quality program
Mandate vaccination??

20. Influenza – the Numbers
15% of persons ill during average influenza season
23% of HCP had documented serologic evidence of influenza infection after mild influenza season; 59% could not recall having influenza
>75% of HCP with influenza-like illness (ILI) continued to work in hospital
32% decrease (to 0) of nosocomial influenza in a hospital with vaccination increase from 4 to >67%

21. Barriers to Influenza Vaccination
Fear of vaccine side effects (particularly influenza-like illness symptoms)
Perceived ineffectiveness of the vaccine
Medical contraindication (not always valid)
Perceived low likelihood of contracting influenza
Fear of needles
Insufficient time or inconvenience
Similar barriers may apply to Tdap
CDC influenza vaccine information for HCP:

22. Strategies Used by Nursing Homes to Encourage Influenza Vaccination Among Their Employees
§ Strategies associated with LTCF staff influenza vaccination rates >60%
SOURCE: National Nursing Home Survey; 2004
Available at:

23. Mandatory Influenza Vaccination
Seattle: Virginia Mason – first U.S. hospital to mandate influenza vaccination or mask wearing during influenza season
St. Louis: Barnes-Jewish – first U.S. hospital to mandate influenza vaccination and terminate noncompliant employees
New York: 2009 emergency regulation (later withdrawn) required seasonal and pandemic H1N1 vaccination of personnel in hospitals, home care, hospice, and diagnostic/treatment facilities
_health_care_worker_mandatory_influenza_immunization.htm
California: hospitals must offer vaccine at no cost to employees
Vaccination or written declination required per SB 739 and the ATD standard
Public reporting of vaccination rates via CDC’s National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) required
Some hospitals began mandating vaccination or mask wearing in 2009

24. National Organization Influenza Vaccination Recommendations
APIC 2011: Acute care hospitals, long-term care and other facilities that employ HCP should require annual influenza immunization as a condition of employment unless there are compelling medical contraindications. Unvaccinated HCP may be required to wear a mask when contact with patients or susceptible employees is likely.
SHEA 2010: Endorses a policy in which annual influenza vaccination is a condition of both initial and continued HCP employment and/or professional privileges.
IDSA 2009: Mandatory vaccination or mask wearing.
ACIP 2007: Level of vaccination coverage among HCP to be one measure of a patient safety quality program. Implement policies to encourage HCP vaccination (e.g., obtaining signed statements from HCP who decline influenza vaccination).
Most unions oppose mandatory vaccination

25. Joint Commission
Standard IC : The organization offers vaccination against influenza to licensed independent practitioners and staff.
The hospital establishes an annual influenza vaccination program that is offered to licensed independent practitioners and staff.
The hospital educates licensed independent practitioners and staff about, at a minimum, the influenza vaccine; non-vaccine control and prevention measures; and the diagnosis, transmission, and impact of influenza.
The hospital provides influenza vaccination at sites accessible to licensed independent practitioners and staff.
The hospital annually evaluates vaccination rates and the reasons given for declining the influenza vaccination.
The hospital takes steps to increase influenza vaccination rates.

26. Medical Conditions that Confer a Higher Risk of Severe Influenza
Chronic pulmonary disorders (including asthma)
Cardiovascular disorders (except hypertension)
Renal disorders
Hepatic disorders
Cognitive disorders*
Neurologic/neuromuscular disorders*
Hematologic disorders
Metabolic disorders (including diabetes mellitus)
Immunosuppression (including immunosuppression caused by medications or by HIV)
*that can compromise respiratory function, the handling of respiratory secretions, or increase the risk for aspiration

27. Can HCP taking antivirals receive influenza vaccine?
Antivirals do not interfere with the development of immunity from inactivated (injectable) influenza vaccine
Antivirals may interfere with the development of immunity from intranasal live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV)
LAIV should not be administered until 48 hours after the cessation of antiviral therapy and antivirals should not be administered until two weeks after administration of LAIV unless medically indicated
If antivirals and LAIV are given concomitantly, HCP should be revaccinated when appropriate

28. Hepatitis B

29. Hepatitis B Vaccination: HCP
Any person who performs tasks involving contact with blood, blood-contaminated body fluids, other body fluids, or sharps should be vaccinated against hepatitis B
Highly immunogenic – seroconversion ~95%
Incidence among HCP since mid-1990s is lower than general population due to vaccination and standard precautions
Updated U.S. P.H.S. Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HBV, HCV, and
HIV and Recommendations for Post-exposure Prophylaxis. MMWR 50 (RR11) - 6/29/01

30. Vaccine Recommended for HCP
Estimated Number of Acute HBV Infections Due to Occupational Exposures, U.S.,
OSHA Requirements
Vaccine Recommended for HCP

31. Hepatitis B
HCP with potential for exposure to blood or body fluids should be immunized for hepatitis B with the 3-dose vaccine series if they have not already received it
Newly immunized HCP should be tested 1-2 months after the last dose of vaccine series to determine if they are immune
anti-HBs >10 mIU/mL = immune

32. Hepatitis B Testing After Vaccination
Anti-HBs <10 mIU/mL  revaccinate
3 doses followed by testing after third dose more practical than testing after 1 or more doses of vaccine
Anti-HBs <10 mIU/mL after revaccination  test for HBsAg
HBsAg positive  provide appropriate management
HBsAg negative  susceptible to HBV infection
counsel re: precautions to prevent HBV infection
HBIG postexposure prophylaxis for any known or likely parenteral exposure to HBsAg-positive blood
Periodic titers or booster doses of vaccine not recommended - protection is long lasting

33. Previously Vaccinated HCP Without Evidence of Immunity
Over time, an increasing number of persons entering the healthcare workforce will have received routine vaccination as infants, children, or adolescents; most will have no documentation of seroprotection
Persons immunized for hepatitis B in the past are less likely to have measurable anti-HBs than those vaccinated more recently
An ACIP workgroup is currently discussing recommendations for HCP who were immunized as children

34. Testing for Hepatitis B Infection
Regardless of immunization history, it may be prudent to test HCP and trainees in certain high-risk groups for HBsAg and anti-HBc/anti-HBs to determine their infection status:
Those born in countries with high and intermediate endemicity for hepatitis B
Unvaccinated U.S.-born HCP whose parents were born in regions of high endemicity for hepatitis B
HIV-positive HCP
HCP who disclose having engaged in or currently engaging in high-risk sexual or substance abuse behaviors
HCP who require immunosuppressive therapy or who are on hemodialysis

35. Hepatitis B Infected HCP
Chronic hepatitis B infection is not grounds for exclusion from healthcare practice or training
See the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America’s “Guideline for Management of Healthcare Workers Who Are Infected with Hepatitis B Virus, Hepatitis C Virus, and/or Human Immunodeficiency Virus” at:

36. HBV Postexposure Prophylaxis
Updated U.S. Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV and Recommendations for Post-exposure Prophylaxis.
MMWR 50 (RR11) - 6/29/01

37. Measles

38. Measles
In the decade before the measles vaccine was licensed in 1963, ~3–4 million people were infected in the U.S. each year
400–500 died
48,000 were hospitalized
1,000 developed chronic disability from measles encephalitis
Epidemics occurred every 2-3 years
Widespread use of measles vaccine led to a greater than 99% reduction in measles cases in the U.S. compared with the pre-vaccine era

40. transmission interrupted
Measles—United States,
2nd dose
1989
Endemic
transmission interrupted
Measles
declared
eliminated
Vaccine Licensed
1963
This graph shows measles incidence from 1950 to 2005 in the US. The first measles containing vaccines were licensed in 1963 and vaccination has had a dramatic effect on measles incidence in the United States as shown here.
[CLICK] The inset graph depicts incidence from 1980 using a finer scale for the Y-axis to demonstrate the large outbreak that occurred from which caused over 55,000 cases, more than 11,000 hospitalizations and 123 deaths. Because of this resurgence, the United States introduced a 2 dose strategy of measles vaccination in By 1997, endemic transmission was successfully interrupted in the US.

41. Measles
Elimination of endemic measles in North and South America was achieved in 2002 and is a public health success model for immunization programs in the developed world
Last nationwide outbreak in U.S. was when there were 17,000 cases in California with 70 deaths
Introduction of 2nd dose of vaccine in 1989 and federal “Vaccines for Children” program in 1993
2000: “Measles is no longer endemic in the U.S.”
As evidenced by recent outbreak activity in Europe, for control to be sustained, two-dose vaccination strategy with very high coverage is needed
Measles continues to be imported to the U.S. and California by travelers from parts of the world where measles is not controlled

43. Measles Transmission
Measles is transmitted via the airborne route and is thought to be the most infectious communicable disease
Measles transmission has been documented in physician offices, emergency rooms, and hospital wards; HCP have been infected in recent outbreaks
Good documentation and high levels of immunity minimize the amount of follow-up that needs to be done in the event of an exposure
Record review for hundreds to thousands staff
Serologic testing and vaccination

44. Presumptive Evidence of Immunity to Measles
Documented administration of two doses of live measles virus vaccine on or after the first birthday and at least 28 days apart; or
Laboratory evidence of immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease; or
Birth before 1957*
Documentation of physician-diagnosed measles is no longer acceptable evidence of immunity
* Since ~5% of people born before 1957 are susceptible to measles, CDPH recommends that immunity be assessed if such HCP are exposed to measles. During an outbreak, 2 doses of MMR are recommended for unvaccinated HCP without evidence of immunity.

45. Respiratory Protection
Regardless of immune status, all HCP must use respiratory protection at least as effective as an N95 respirator when in contact with measles patients

46. Measles Exposures
If an exposure to measles occurs in a healthcare facility CDPH recommends that all exposed HCP, regardless of age, have:
serological evidence of immunity to measles (IgG+); or
documentation of two doses of measles containing vaccine (preferably MMR) after first birthday
Reviewing HCP immune status for measles and testing for immunity/providing vaccine after an exposure results in considerable work for healthcare facilities

47. Healthcare-Associated Transmission of Measles in U. S
Healthcare-Associated Transmission of Measles in U.S. Healthcare Facilities
Healthcare-associated transmission of measles is well documented
Measles can be transmitted up to two hours after an infectious patient has left the area
11% of 127 cases were transmitted in healthcare settings; considerable economic cost and public health effort to contain (~$100,000 to $400,000)
Four cases of measles were acquired in a San Diego County pediatrician’s office
The largest nosocomial measles outbreak in 20 years occurred in Arizona in 2008

48. Arizona Measles Outbreak, 2008
In February 2008, an infected Swiss traveler sparked a measles outbreak involving 14 cases, 7 of whom were infected in healthcare facilities; measles was not suspected until after she had been hospitalized, unisolated, for 2 days
Of the 11 secondary cases who accessed healthcare, 10 did not receive a prompt measles diagnosis after rash onset and only 1 was masked and isolated promptly
8231 people were potentially exposed; 4793 were hospital or clinic patients and 2868 were HCP
25% of 7195 screened HCP lacked evidence of measles immunity; 1583 underwent IgG testing and 121 (11%) of 1077 HCPs born >1957 and 18 (4%) of 506 HCPs born <1957 were seronegative, including 1 who acquired measles
Two hospitals spent ~$800,000 responding to and containing the seven measles cases in their facilities

49. Mumps

50. Mumps in Healthcare Settings
In recent outbreaks involving hospitals and long-term care facilities with adolescent and young adult patients, infection control failures resulted in nosocomial transmission
Exposure to mumps in healthcare settings results in added economic costs associated with furlough or reassignment of staff members from patient-care duties or the closure of wards
In Tennessee in , nosocomial transmission of mumps occurred in two hospital ERs infecting 6 HCP and in two long-term care facilities infecting 9 patients

52. Presumptive Evidence of Immunity to Mumps
Documented administration of two doses of live mumps virus vaccine; or
Laboratory evidence of immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease; or
Born before 1957
Documentation of physician-diagnosed mumps is no longer acceptable evidence of immunity

53. Mumps Vaccination
All persons who work in healthcare facilities should be immune to mumps
HCP born during or after 1957  2 doses
No vaccination/immunity  2 doses (>28 days apart)
Only 1 dose previously  second dose
Birth before 1957 only presumptive evidence of immunity; consider 1 dose for unvaccinated workers without laboratory evidence of immunity
During an outbreak, 2 doses of vaccine recommended for workers born before 1957 who do not have evidence of immunity

54. Mumps Epidemiology
Post-licensure studies of 1 dose of mumps vaccine showed it was 78%-91% effective in preventing clinical mumps
Late 1980s - early 1990s, mumps outbreaks observed in schools with extremely high (>95%) vaccination coverage, suggesting that 1 dose of mumps vaccine is insufficient to prevent mumps outbreaks in schools
Since the dose MMR requirement, incidence of mumps disease has decreased and studies of vaccine effectiveness during outbreaks suggest substantially higher levels of protection with a second dose of MMR

56. Mumps Prevention and Control
During an outbreak, healthcare facilities should strongly consider recommending 2 doses of mumps vaccine to unvaccinated workers born before 1957 who do not have evidence of mumps immunity
Reviewing HCP immune status for mumps and providing serologic testing and vaccine during an outbreak is difficult
Facilities might consider reviewing immune status of HCP routinely and providing appropriate vaccinations, including a second dose of mumps vaccine, in conjunction with annual activities such as influenza vaccination or tuberculin testing

57. Rubella

58. Rubella Epidemiology
Rubella vaccines were first licensed in 1969 and rubella was declared eliminated in the U.S. in 2004
Rubella cases in the U.S. are now imported from regions of the world where rubella is not controlled

59. Presumptive Evidence of Immunity to Rubella
Documented administration of one dose of live rubella virus vaccine; or
Laboratory evidence of immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease; or
Born before 1957 (except premenopausal women who could become pregnant)
Documentation of physician-diagnosed rubella is no longer acceptable evidence of immunity

60. Presumptive Evidence of Immunity to Rubella, continued
HCP who can provide documentation of serological evidence of rubella immunity (e.g., via prenatal testing) do not need to be retested and should be considered immune
The principle of “once immune, always immune” also applies to measles, mumps and hepatitis B

61. MMR Vaccination for HCP Born Before 1957
HCP born before 1957 are generally presumed to be immune to measles, mumps, and rubella, but not all are
Consider recommending 2 doses of MMR vaccine routinely for unvaccinated HCP born before 1957 who lack laboratory evidence of measles, mumps or rubella immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease
During an outbreak of measles or mumps, two doses of MMR vaccine are recommended for unvaccinated HCP born before 1957 who lack laboratory evidence of immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease; one dose of MMR recommended during a rubella outbreak

62. Measles, Mumps and Rubella Immunity Testing
Testing for serologic evidence of immunity to measles, mumps or rubella is not recommended for HCP who have two documented doses of MMR vaccine or other acceptable evidence of immunity
If testing is inadvertently performed on HCP with documentation of vaccination and the worker is IgG negative for measles, mumps or rubella, ACIP recommends that test be assumed to be falsely negative and that the worker should be presumed immune for the purposes of preplacement screening
If such a worker has an exposure to measles, CDPH recommends treating as susceptible

63. Varicella

64. Varicella Among HCP
Nosocomial transmission of is varicella is well-recognized
Sources
Patients, hospital staff, and visitors with varicella or herpes zoster
Airborne transmission of varicella has been demonstrated
Varicella has occurred in susceptible persons who had no direct contact with index case-patient
Virus detected in air
Herpes zoster may also be airborne (?)

66. 2007 ACIP Recommendations Serologic screening before vaccination
Testing unvaccinated HCP with a negative or uncertain history of varicella is likely to be cost-effective; or
Test all HCP, because small proportion with positive history of disease might be susceptible
Routine testing after 2 doses of vaccine is not recommended
Available commercial assays not sensitive enough and are likely to be falsely negative
In sensitive tests, 99% of adults develop antibodies after 2nd dose
If testing is done, IgG+ results can be relied upon

67. Evidence of Immunity to Varicella in HCP
Documentation of two doses of vaccine
Laboratory evidence of immunity or laboratory confirmation of disease
Diagnosis or verification of history of varicella disease or history of herpes zoster (shingles) by a healthcare provider
If an employee states they have had varicella or herpes zoster in the past, a healthcare provider can interview the employee to determine if their history is compatible with one of these diagnoses; if so, this is considered evidence of immunity

68. Evidence of Immunity to Varicella
Serologic evidence of VZV infection in 96%-97% of U.S.-born adults aged years and in 97%-99% of adults aged >30 years tested during
U.S. birth before 1980 considered evidence of immunity except for HCP, pregnant women, and immunocomprised people
For these three groups, certainty regarding immunity is desirable because of the possibility of nosocomial transmission to high-risk patients; transmission of the virus to the fetus, which might result in congenital varicella syndrome; and possibility of severe disease

69. Respiratory Protection
Regardless of immune status, all HCP must use respiratory protection at least as effective as an N95 respirator when in contact with varicella patients

70. Varicella Exposure to Vaccinated HCP
2 doses - monitor daily during days to determine clinical status, place on sick leave immediately if symptoms occur
1 dose – give 2nd dose <3-5 days of exposure
After vaccination, management is similar to 2-dose
Unvaccinated HCP without immunity – postexposure vaccination and furlough days after exposure

71. Transmission of Vaccine Virus from Vaccine Recipients with Rash
Risk low; transmission has been documented after exposures in households and long-term care facilities
No cases documented after vaccination of HCP
Consider precautions for HCP in whom rash occurs after vaccination
Avoid contact with persons without evidence of immunity at risk for severe disease and complications until all lesions resolve (i.e., are crusted over or fade away) or no new lesions appear in a 24-hour period

72. Varicella Postexposure Prophylaxis
Varicella vaccine is effective in preventing illness or modifying varicella severity if administered to unvaccinated children within 3 days, and possibly up to 5 days, of exposure
Studies only in children
Although postexposure use of varicella vaccine has potential applications in hospital settings, pre-exposure vaccination preferred

73. Pertussis

74. Pertussis in the United States
Least well controlled vaccine preventable disease
Cyclical with peaks every 2-5 years – in 2010, California experienced an epidemic with >9,000 cases & 10 deaths
Most severe disease occurs among infants <6 months of age; almost all deaths are in infants <3 months of age
Studies have shown that ~half of the infants with pertussis were infected by a household member, most often their mother
Immunity via vaccine or disease wanes over time; most children last vaccinated at kindergarten are susceptible again by middle school
Almost all adults are susceptible; only ~6% of adults have received Tdap, which was licensed in 2005

75. Number of reported pertussis cases by year of onset ― California, 1914-2010*
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
Cases per 100,000
Year
Acellular
DTaP
licensed
Tdap
PCR
available
DTP
widely
used
* Includes cases reported to CDPH as of 3/9/2011

76. Number of reported pertussis cases by year of onset -- California 1945-2010*
9,225 confirmed, probable and suspect cases of pertussis have been reported in 2010 for a state rate of 23.6 cases/100,000
There have now been more cases reported than in 60 years; 6,613 cases were reported in 1950 and the highest incidence since 1958 when there were 26 cases/100,000 population 76

77. Pertussis Among HCP Nosocomial spread of pertussis documented Sources
Hospitals and EDs (pediatric and adult), clinics, LTCFs
Sources
Patients, HCP with hospital or community-acquired pertussis, visitors or family members; up to 80 infections per index case
Incidence in HCP currently ~7% per year
90% pediatric hospitals reported HCP exposures over 5-year period; 11% reported infected physicians

78. Costs of Controlling Pertussis
$74,870-$174,327 per outbreak
$42,000-$98,000/year for pertussis exposures
Include identifying contacts among HCP and patients, providing postexposure prophylaxis for asymptomatic close contacts, and evaluating, treating, and placing symptomatic HCP on administrative leave until they have received effective treatment
MMWR December 15, 2006;55(RR17)

79. Tdap Vaccine
In 2005, a vaccine containing tetanus and diphtheria toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap) was licensed in the U.S. for persons aged years (ADACEL®) – pertussis is not available as a single vaccine
In 2006, ACIP recommended that HCP in hospitals and ambulatory care settings with direct patient contact receive a single dose of Tdap as soon as feasible if they have not previously received it – this was re-emphasized in 2011 “all HCP should receive Tdap as soon as feasible”
HCP who have direct contact with infants <12 months of age or pregnant women should be strongly encouraged to be vaccinated
Regardless of age, HCP without documentation of Tdap immunization should receive it – there is no minimum interval between the last dose of Td and Tdap

80. Implementing Hospital Tdap Program
Infrastructure for vaccination exists in most hospitals
New HCP screened and vaccinated on employment
Can be given at same time as influenza vaccine
Tiered approach option: priority given to HCP with contact with infants aged <12 months, other vulnerable groups of patients
As Tdap vaccination coverage in general population increases, many new HCP will already have received dose of Tdap
Birth hospitals should also promote Tdap vaccination of new mothers
Emergency departments should use Tdap

81. 2011 ACIP Recommendations on Pertussis Postexposure Prophylaxis for Vaccinated HCP
Data on the need for postexposure prophylaxis in Tdap-vaccinated HCP are inconclusive
Postexposure prophylaxis is recommend for all HCP who have unprotected exposure to pertussis and are likely to expose a patient at risk for severe pertussis (e.g., hospitalized neonates)
Other HCP should either receive postexposure prophylaxis or be monitored for 21 days after pertussis exposure and treated at the onset of signs and symptoms of pertussis

82. Meningococcal Disease

83. Meningococcal Disease
Caused by the bacterium N. meningitidis
~185 cases/year in California; peaks in winter
Even with proper treatment, it may progress rapidly and result in death; 10-20% survivors have sequelae
Most cases are caused by five N. meningitidis serogroups: A, B, C, W-135 and Y
Serogroup B is not contained in the vaccine; > 1/3 of cases in California are serogroup B and are not vaccine preventable

85. Meningococcal disease by month of onset – California 2009-2011

86. Meningococcal Vaccine
Microbiologists routinely exposed to isolates of N. meningitdis are considered to be at increased risk for meningococcal disease and are recommended to receive vaccine
Two types of quadrivalent meningococcal vaccine are available – both protect against infection with serogroups A, C, W-135 and Y (not against B)
Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV4) for workers through 55 years of age
Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV4) for workers over 55 years of age
Employees >55 years who have received MPSV4 3-5 years previously should be revaccinated with MCV4 if still at increased risk

87. New ACIP Recommendations
HCP with anatomic or functional asplenia, persistent complement component deficiencies, or HIV should now receive a 2-dose primary series of meningococcal conjugate vaccine
Those HCP who remain in groups at high-risk are recommended to be revaccinated every 5 years

88. Other Resources for Occupational Health
Medical center occupational and employee health issues (MCOH-EH) listserv
American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine