1. Industrial Instrumentation
Dr. –Ing. Naveed Ramzan
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2. Home work-1
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3. Home work-1
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4. Temperature Sensor
“It is time to turn up the heat but first you must learn how to measure it”
Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and temperature must be maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable operation of process equipment.   Temperature can be measured by many methods; several of the more common are described in this subsection.  You should understand the strengths and limitations of each sensor, so that you can select the best sensor for each application.
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5. Relative Scales Absolute Scales Temperature Measurement Scales
Fahrenheit (°F)
Celsius (°C)
Absolute Scales
Rankine (°R)
Kelvin (K)
F = 1.8 C R = F C = (F - 32) / K = C Temperature At the beginning of the renaissance many scientists recognized that the idea of the subjective sense of temperature needed to be quantified. They knew that the behavior, and sometimes the structure, of a body changed as it became hotter or colder. The most vivid example of the phenomenon is the behavior and structure of water as it is cooled to the freezing point. But, how does one quantify, or measure, a subjective feeling?
Galileo, and others, tried to build various types of thermometers which were are successful to some extent, but they all lacked the essential quality of being able to measure temperature with any more repeatability than the common sense of touch.
Along comes a German Physicist, Gabriel Fahrenheit, and the mercury thermometer. Fahrenheit's real contribution was a sealed thermometer that measured the expansion and contraction of mercury with temperature changes and it was independent of atmospheric pressure changes. The susceptibility of the non-sealed thermometers to atmospheric pressure changes later evolved into the barometer that is the basis of the next topic.Fahrenheit. He needed to calibrate his thermometer at some repeatable temperatures and so he selected the two most common and universally repeatable temperatures: the freezing point of pure water and the boiling point of pure water.Fahrenheit engraved a scale on his prototype thermometer before he calibrated it. When he measure the temperatures of ice water and boiling water, he came up with two of the most inconvenient numbers around: 32° and 212°. 5

6. Fahrenheit (⁰F) / Rankine (⁰R) Celsius (⁰C) / Kelvin (⁰K)
Temperature Measurement Scales
Imperial
Fahrenheit (⁰F) / Rankine (⁰R)
+/- 460
Metric
Celsius (⁰C) / Kelvin (⁰K)
+/- 273
100⁰C
373⁰K
273⁰K
255⁰K
0⁰C
-18⁰C
-273⁰C
0⁰K
-460⁰F
0⁰R
0⁰F
32⁰F
460⁰R
492⁰R
672⁰R
212⁰F
Fahrenheit
[°F] = [°C] · 9/5 + 32
Celsius
[°C] = ([°F] − 32) · 5/9
Kelvin
[K] = [°C]
Rankine
[°R] = [°F]

7. (°F) = 9/5*(°C) +32 (°C) = 5/9*[(°F) –32] (°F) = (°R) – 459.67
Relationship of Temperature Measurement Scales
(°F) = 9/5*(°C) +32
(°C) = 5/9*[(°F) –32]
(°F) = (°R) –
(°C) = (K) –

8. Mechanical Methods Electrical Methods
Methods of Temperature Measurement
Mechanical Methods
Electrical Methods
In nearly all cases, the temperature sensor is protected from the process materials to prevent interference with proper sensing and to eliminate damage to the sensor.  Thus, some physically strong, chemically resistant barrier exists between the process and sensor; often, this barrier is termed a sheath or thermowell, especially for thermocouple sensors.  An additional advantage of such a barrier is the ability to remove, replace, and calibrate the sensor without disrupting the process operation.
Thermocouples are among the easiest temperature sensors to use and obtain and are widely used in science and industry. They are based on the Seebeck effect that occurs in electrical conductors that experience a temperature gradient along their length.
Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal wires joined at least at one end, which generate a net thermoelectric voltage between the the open pair according to the size of the temperature difference between the ends, the relative Seebeck coefficient of the wire pair and the uniformity of the wire-pair relative Seebeck coefficient.
Thermistors are special solid temperature sensors that behave like temperature-sensitive electrical resistors.
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a change in electrical resistance with a change in its temperature. The resistance is measured by passing a small, measured direct current (dc) through it and measuring the voltage drop produced.
Resistance Temperature Detectors or RTDs for short, are wire wound and thin film devices that measure temperature because of the physical principle of the positive temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the larger or higher the value of their electrical resistance.
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9. Electrical resistance change (RTD) Pyrometers Expansion of materials
Methods of Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples
Thermistors
Electrical resistance change (RTD)
Pyrometers
Expansion of materials
In nearly all cases, the temperature sensor is protected from the process materials to prevent interference with proper sensing and to eliminate damage to the sensor.  Thus, some physically strong, chemically resistant barrier exists between the process and sensor; often, this barrier is termed a sheath or thermowell, especially for thermocouple sensors.  An additional advantage of such a barrier is the ability to remove, replace, and calibrate the sensor without disrupting the process operation.
Thermocouples are among the easiest temperature sensors to use and obtain and are widely used in science and industry. They are based on the Seebeck effect that occurs in electrical conductors that experience a temperature gradient along their length.
Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal wires joined at least at one end, which generate a net thermoelectric voltage between the the open pair according to the size of the temperature difference between the ends, the relative Seebeck coefficient of the wire pair and the uniformity of the wire-pair relative Seebeck coefficient.
Thermistors are special solid temperature sensors that behave like temperature-sensitive electrical resistors.
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a change in electrical resistance with a change in its temperature. The resistance is measured by passing a small, measured direct current (dc) through it and measuring the voltage drop produced.
Resistance Temperature Detectors or RTDs for short, are wire wound and thin film devices that measure temperature because of the physical principle of the positive temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the larger or higher the value of their electrical resistance.
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10. The magnitude of emf depends on the junction temperature.
Thermocouples
When 2 dissimilar metals are joined together to form a junction, an emf is produced which is proportional to the temperature being sensed.
Seebeck Effect:
The generation of
current in a circuit
comprising of two wires
of dissimilar metals in
the presence of
temperature difference
---Thermocouples: When the junctions of two dissimilar metals are at different temperatures, an electromotive force (emf) is developed. The cold junction, referred to as the reference, is maintained at a known temperature, and the measuring junction  is located where the temperature is to be determined.  The temperature difference can be determined from the measured emf.  The relationship between temperature difference and emf has been determined for several commonly used combinations of metals; the mildly nonlinear relationships are available in tabular form along with polynomial equations relating emf to temperature (Omega, 1995).
----The see beck effect occurs when you take any two members of the thermoelectric series and connect wires made of them to form a circuit with two junctions. In the presence of a temperature difference between the junctions a small current flows around the circuit.
Another junction is formed when the metering circuit is connected to the thermocouple
The meter reads the difference between the Meas. Junc. & Ref. Junc.
The magnitude of emf depends on the junction temperature.
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11. Thermocouples
---Thermocouples: When the junctions of two dissimilar metals are at different temperatures, an electromotive force (emf) is developed. The cold junction, referred to as the reference, is maintained at a known temperature, and the measuring junction  is located where the temperature is to be determined.  The temperature difference can be determined from the measured emf.  The relationship between temperature difference and emf has been determined for several commonly used combinations of metals; the mildly nonlinear relationships are available in tabular form along with polynomial equations relating emf to temperature (Omega, 1995).
----The see beck effect occurs when you take any two members of the thermoelectric series and connect wires made of them to form a circuit with two junctions. In the presence of a temperature difference between the junctions a small current flows around the circuit.
Another junction is formed when the metering circuit is connected to the thermocouple
The meter reads the difference between the Meas. Junc. & Ref. Junc.
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12. Typical Industrial Thermocouple Assembly
---Thermocouples: When the junctions of two dissimilar metals are at different temperatures, an electromotive force (emf) is developed. The cold junction, referred to as the reference, is maintained at a known temperature, and the measuring junction  is located where the temperature is to be determined.  The temperature difference can be determined from the measured emf.  The relationship between temperature difference and emf has been determined for several commonly used combinations of metals; the mildly nonlinear relationships are available in tabular form along with polynomial equations relating emf to temperature (Omega, 1995).
----The see beck effect occurs when you take any two members of the thermoelectric series and connect wires made of them to form a circuit with two junctions. In the presence of a temperature difference between the junctions a small current flows around the circuit.
Another junction is formed when the metering circuit is connected to the thermocouple
The meter reads the difference between the Meas. Junc. & Ref. Junc.
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13. Thermocouple Types
TCs are identified by a single letter type and grouped according to their temperature range
Base Metals – up to °C
Type J, Type E, Type T, Type K
Noble Metals – up to 2000 °C
Type R, Type S, Type B
Refractory Metals – up to 2600 °C
Type C, Type D, Type G
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14. Metal Combinations TC Type Colours Range C Positive Lead (Coloured)
Negative Lead
(all Red) J
White/Red
-210 to 1200
Iron
Constantan E
Purple/Red
-270 to1000
Chromel T
Blue/Red
0 to 400
Copper K
Yellow/Red
-270 to1372
Alumel R
Black/Red
-50 to 1768
Platinum-13% rhodium
Platinum S
Platinum-10% rhodium B
Grey/Red
0 to 1700
Platinum-30% rhodium
Platinum-6% rhodium C
White-Red/Red
0 to 2320
Tungsten/5% rhenium
Tungsten 26% rhenium
Chromel = Nickel-chromium
Alumel = Nickel-aluminum
Constantan = Copper-nickel
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15. Voltage to Temperature Conversion
Thermocouple Tables
Voltage to Temperature Conversion
Type T Thermocouple (Blue & Red) Reference Junction 0 °C C
Each degree C has a corresponding mV, for example mV equal to 36 C if a Type T thermocouple is used.
However connecting a meter to read this voltage will create another junction because the meter leads and the TC leads are not the same type of metals.
1.445 mV equal to temperature ……………………………………..
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16. Voltage to Temperature Conversion
Thermocouple Callibration Charts
Voltage to Temperature Conversion
Each degree C has a corresponding mV, for example mV equal to 36 C if a Type T thermocouple is used.
However connecting a meter to read this voltage will create another junction because the meter leads and the TC leads are not the same type of metals.
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17. The operating range can be -200°C to + 1000°C
Thermistors
Thermistor, a word formed by combining thermal with resistor, is a temperature-sensitive resistor fabricated from semiconducting materials.
The resistance of thermistors decreases proportionally with increases in temperature.
The operating range can be -200°C to °C
Metallic resistance thermometers and thermistors are two types of thermometers based on the principle that the electrical resistance of materials changes as their temperature changes
RTDs use metallic wires
Thermistors use semiconductor materials
-- Are thermally sensitive resistors that change resistance with changes in temperature
They are highly-sensitive and have very reproducible resistance Vs. temperature properties.
Typically used over a small temperature range, (compared to other temperature sensors) because of their non-linear characteristics
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18. The thermistors can be in the shape of a rod, bead or disc.
Manufactured from oxides of nickel, manganese, iron, cobalt, magnesium, titanium and other metals.
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19. The word that best describes the thermistors is “sensitive”
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20. Resistance to Temperature Conversion
Thermistor Charts
Resistance to Temperature Conversion
Each degree C has a corresponding mV, for example mV equal to 36 C if a Type T thermocouple is used.
However connecting a meter to read this voltage will create another junction because the meter leads and the TC leads are not the same type of metals.
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21. Small sizes and fast response Low cost Suitability for narrow spans
Thermistors
Advantages:
Small sizes and fast response
Low cost
Suitability for narrow spans
Disadvantages:
More susceptible to permanent decalibration at high temperatures.
Use is limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius.
Respond quickly to temperature changes, thus, especially susceptible to self-heating errors.
Very fragile
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22. Resistance Temperature Detector- RTD
Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)
Resistance Temperature Detector- RTD
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a temperature sensitive resistor.
It is a positive temperature coefficient device, which means that the resistance increases with temperature.
The resistive property of the metal is called its resistivity.
-- This type of sensors is based on the observation that different materials can have different resistive profiles at different temperatures. These properties are mainly electrical in nature.
-- Industrial RTDs are very accurate: the accuracy can be as high as ±0.1°C. The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.
The industry standard is the platinum wire RTD (Pt100) whose base resistance is exactly ohms at 0.0 °C.
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23. Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)
Platinum Wire RTDs (PRTs)
PRTs have established themselves as the de-facto industry standard for temperature measurement, and for many reasons:
linear temperature sensors
Resistance vs temperature characteristics are stable and reproducible
linear positive temperature coefficient (-200 to 800 °C)
very accurate and suitable for use as a secondary standard
-- Industrial RTDs are very accurate: the accuracy can be as high as ±0.1°C. The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.
---The wire is cut, coiled and housed in a protective overcoat (thermowell)
---Each RTD is standardized to provide a specific resistance per degree
---The temperature can be determined by using a R-T table.
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24. Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)
Platinum Scale ( 0 to 100 °C )
-- Industrial RTDs are very accurate: the accuracy can be as high as ±0.1°C. The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.
---The wire is cut, coiled and housed in a protective overcoat (thermowell)
---Each RTD is standardized to provide a specific resistance per degree
---The temperature can be determined by using a R-T table.
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25. Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)
International Practical scale for Temperature
(0 to °C)
-- Industrial RTDs are very accurate: the accuracy can be as high as ±0.1°C. The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.
---The wire is cut, coiled and housed in a protective overcoat (thermowell)
---Each RTD is standardized to provide a specific resistance per degree
---The temperature can be determined by using a R-T table.
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26. Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)
International Practical scale for Temperature
(Below 0 °C)
-- Industrial RTDs are very accurate: the accuracy can be as high as ±0.1°C. The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.
---The wire is cut, coiled and housed in a protective overcoat (thermowell)
---Each RTD is standardized to provide a specific resistance per degree
---The temperature can be determined by using a R-T table.
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27. Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)
International Practical scale for Temperature
-- Industrial RTDs are very accurate: the accuracy can be as high as ±0.1°C. The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.
---The wire is cut, coiled and housed in a protective overcoat (thermowell)
---Each RTD is standardized to provide a specific resistance per degree
---The temperature can be determined by using a R-T table.
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28. 10 ohms Copper RTD - .00427 coefficients
Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)
Other RTDs
10 ohms Copper RTD coefficients
100 ohms Platinum RTD coefficients
(new IEC)
100 ohms Platinum RTD coefficients (old)
120 ohms Nickel RTD coefficient
604 ohms Nickel-Iron RTD coefficients
All base resistances are specified at a temperature of 0 degrees C
A Pt1000 will have a base resistance of 1000 ohms at 0 deg. C
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29. How much error will 100 ft length of Cu lead wire introduce?
RTDs with a bridge circuit
Only practical if the RTD lead wires are short.
In many applications the RTD is located far from the conditioning circuit adding extra resistance because the length of the copper lead wire.
Cu = Ω per ft.
How much error will 100 ft length of Cu lead wire introduce?
Most RTD’s have an extra wire to compensate for the length of lead wire.
To provide a continuous temperature signal the RTD output must be conditioned using a Wheatstone Bridge.
This setup will convert the RTD resistance to a voltage output (Vo) The amp can also provide a 4-20 mA signal.
Why? Because the ∆R/°C is very small and its easier to work with volts instead of resistance.
Special attention should be given on the wiring of RTD bridge connection as well as self-heating when a current is sent through the RTD.
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30. RTD Colour Code
Not standardized but this is common colour arrangement. Some (like in the lab) will use BLK-BLK-RED
2-Wire System
Two wire RTDs are used when the length of lead wire to the conditioning circuitry is small and does not introduce an additional resistance large enough to be measured by the bridge circuit. Depending on lead length and wire size the error may be negligible or profound.
3-Wire System
To compensate for errors introduced by the length of the lead wire industrial sensors commonly use this three-wire connection system. For this system to be effective, all the leads should be very near the same length and of the same gauge.
Any error introduced by the lead wire resistance is effectively cancelled in the bridge circuit and the only resistance change will be from the RTD.
4-Wire System
This system provides precision measurements. By switching the pairs of leads and averaging, you arrive at a value from which the lead resistance, thermal emf's in the leads and resistance changes in the leads due to ambient variation has been eliminated.
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31. Radiation pyrometers ( measurement of radiant energy)
Pyrometry is a technique for measuring temperature without physical contact
An apparatus for measuring high temperatures that uses the radiation emitted by a hot body as a basis for measurement.
Radiation pyrometers ( measurement of radiant energy)
Optical Pyrometers (comparison of the intensities )
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32. Radiation Pyrometer Radiation pyrometers
-- Electromagnetic waves propogated through he space with common velocity of km/s.
-- Here concern is with UV radiation and IR Radiation.
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33. Optical pyrometers (600 to 3000 °C)
Radiation Pyrometer
Optical pyrometers (600 to 3000 °C)
basic principle of using the human eye to match the brightness of the hot object to the brightness of a calibrated lamp filament inside the instrument
Compare incident radiation to internal filament radiation
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34. Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of solids)
Expansion Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometer
(Expansion of solids)
Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip
Different metals have difference coefficient.
Configured as spiral or helix for compactness
- Can be used with a pointer to make an inexpensive compact rugged thermometer.
Bimetallic thermometer
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35. Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of solids)
Expansion Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometer
(Expansion of solids)
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36. Thermal expansion methods: Bimetallic sensors
Expansion Thermometers
Bimetallic Thermometer
(Expansion of solids)
Thermal expansion methods: Bimetallic sensors
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37. Spiral Type Bourdon Tube
Expansion Thermometers
Filled Thermal Systems
(Filled System Thermometer, Filled Bulb Thermometer)
Similar operation as the liquid in glass
Bulb
Capillary tube
Pressure element
Scale
Spiral Type Bourdon Tube
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38. Filled Thermal System Classes
Expansion Thermometers
Filled Thermal System Classes
(Filled System Thermometer, Filled Bulb Thermometer)
Class l A,B – Liquid filled
Class ll A,B,C,D –Vapour filled
Class lll A,B – Gas filled
Class V A,B – Mercury Filled
These thermometers are grouped into 4 different classes (and sub-classes) as determined by the type of filling fluid used and the temperature range.
--Response times are relative to each other. Generally speaking they will vary from 4 – 7 seconds depending on the Class.
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39. Filled Thermal System Classes
Expansion Thermometers
Filled Thermal System Classes
(Filled System Thermometer, Filled Bulb Thermometer)
Temperature Range Response
Class l: F to F Slowest
Class ll: to 32 or 32 to 600 F Fastest
Class lll: F to F Fast
Class V: F to F Fast
These thermometers are grouped into 4 different classes (and sub-classes) as determined by the type of filling fluid used and the temperature range.
--Response times are relative to each other. Generally speaking they will vary from 4 – 7 seconds depending on the Class.
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40. Data Required to Provide Measurement of Process Temperature
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41. Data Required to Provide Measurement of Process Temperature
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42. Data Required to Provide Measurement of Process Temperature
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43. Data Required to Provide Measurement of Process Temperature
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44. Criteria for Selecting a Suitable Temperature Measuring Instrument
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45. Summary of Temperature Sensor Characteristics
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46. Summary of Temperature Sensor Characteristics
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47. Discussion & Questions?
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