1. Is Nature or Convention the Basis of Society? Ancient Political Philosophy

2. Some Preliminary Questions… Why do we form societies? Why do we form societies? Why do we create laws? Why do we create laws? Why do we follow laws? Why do we follow laws? Is it always to our advantage to be just? Is it always to our advantage to be just? Must we comply with the laws even when we don’t agree with them? Must we comply with the laws even when we don’t agree with them?

3. Plato’s Protagoras A Creation Myth: How “humankind” got to be capable of governing themselves in societies. A Creation Myth: How “humankind” got to be capable of governing themselves in societies. 1. All the powers were given to the non-rational animals, so Prometheus secured for us technical skill and the use of fire. 2. Since we shared certain gifts with the divine, we began to worship them, which brought us our ability to speak. 2. But we were still unable to run a city, to govern ourselves. 3. Zeus then gave conscience and justice to ALL men. 4. Since everyone had a conscience and a sense of justice, it was incumbent upon all of us to partake in the running of the city.

4. Antiphon the Sophist Antiphon claims that we don’t have the same reason to obey the laws of the state as we do to follow the laws of nature. Antiphon claims that we don’t have the same reason to obey the laws of the state as we do to follow the laws of nature. The laws of nature are necessary whereas the laws of the state are simply a product of convention. The laws of nature are necessary whereas the laws of the state are simply a product of convention. The question that arises is, “So, why do we obey them, especially if they run contrary to what we desire?” The question that arises is, “So, why do we obey them, especially if they run contrary to what we desire?”

5. Plato’s Gorgias Callicles contends that strong people should dominate weaker ones—it’s only natural. Callicles contends that strong people should dominate weaker ones—it’s only natural. Laws frustrate the self-interest of the strong man. Laws frustrate the self-interest of the strong man. The weak man says it is unjust for one to have more than another, but this is not so. Nature says otherwise. The weak man says it is unjust for one to have more than another, but this is not so. Nature says otherwise. Strong men do not need laws. Strong men do not need laws. The only reason to follow the laws is so that one doesn’t get into trouble. The only reason to follow the laws is so that one doesn’t get into trouble. Someday, a man will be born whose nature is strong enough to shake off these limitations and trample over our laws. He will rightly be our master. Someday, a man will be born whose nature is strong enough to shake off these limitations and trample over our laws. He will rightly be our master.

6. Fast forward to 19 th century Germany, and Friedrich Nietzsche… In his work, On the Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche explains the origin of “slave morality” which he identifies with the Christian ethic. As opposed to the “master morality” which nature dictates, slave morality is an attempt of the weak to have power over the strong by the reevaluation of values. In his work, On the Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche explains the origin of “slave morality” which he identifies with the Christian ethic. As opposed to the “master morality” which nature dictates, slave morality is an attempt of the weak to have power over the strong by the reevaluation of values. What was once good (strength and power) becomes evil, what was bad (weakness) becomes good. What was once good (strength and power) becomes evil, what was bad (weakness) becomes good. The Uebermensch is the one who will overcome these values. The Uebermensch is the one who will overcome these values.

7. Plato’s Crito Socrates explains why exile from Athens is not possible. Socrates explains why exile from Athens is not possible. The laws of Athens have given Socrates all that he has. They have made him who he is. The laws of Athens have given Socrates all that he has. They have made him who he is. To leave Athens now would be to destroy the very laws that made him. To leave Athens now would be to destroy the very laws that made him. “Do you think that a city can still exist without being overturned if the legal judgments rendered within it possess no force, but are nullified or invalidated by individuals?” “Do you think that a city can still exist without being overturned if the legal judgments rendered within it possess no force, but are nullified or invalidated by individuals?” By living in the city his whole life and enjoying the benefits of it, Socrates has tacitly agreed to abide by its laws. This is what is now called “tacit consent.” By living in the city his whole life and enjoying the benefits of it, Socrates has tacitly agreed to abide by its laws. This is what is now called “tacit consent.”

8. Plato’s Republic This section challenges us to consider why we ought to behave morally, justly? This section challenges us to consider why we ought to behave morally, justly? Given that, according to nature, doing wrong is considered to be good, and having wrong done to us is bad, the benefits of doing wrong still don’t outweigh the disadvantages of doing it. Therefore, we enter into a contract agreeing not to wrong one another. Given that, according to nature, doing wrong is considered to be good, and having wrong done to us is bad, the benefits of doing wrong still don’t outweigh the disadvantages of doing it. Therefore, we enter into a contract agreeing not to wrong one another. This is the origin of morality. It is a compromise. This is the origin of morality. It is a compromise.

9. Plato’s Republic cont’d. “The point is that any real man with the ability to do wrong would never enter into a contract to avoid both wrongdoing and being wronged. He wouldn’t be so crazy.” “The point is that any real man with the ability to do wrong would never enter into a contract to avoid both wrongdoing and being wronged. He wouldn’t be so crazy.” This suggests that if one could get away with wrongdoing, that would be to his advantage. This suggests that if one could get away with wrongdoing, that would be to his advantage. The myth of the Ring of Gyges shows that to seem just is the best of all possible scenarios. The myth of the Ring of Gyges shows that to seem just is the best of all possible scenarios. (Plato, of course, does not endorse this claim—he merely brings it up in order to prove it wrong later in the dialogue. But can he???) (Plato, of course, does not endorse this claim—he merely brings it up in order to prove it wrong later in the dialogue. But can he???)

10. Aristotle’s Politics I How does the city come into being? How does the city come into being? 1. First, man and woman unite due to the natural impulse to procreate. 2. Next, the master and slave relationship occurs, again naturally, because some are born to rule (reason) while others are born to be ruled (physical strength). 3. These two relationships lead to the beginning of the “household.”

11. Aristotle’s Politics I cont’d. 4. After the household comes to exist, it is natural that several households join together to form “villages.” 5. When several villages join, for the sake of promoting the good life for all its members, a “polis” is formed. The polis is the height of self-sufficiency. It is the completion of the cycle. It is the end or purpose (telos) of human association. The polis is the height of self-sufficiency. It is the completion of the cycle. It is the end or purpose (telos) of human association.

12. Aristotle’s Politics III The polis is not an association simply for people to live in the same area, or for the sake of defense against others, or for commerce. While these things may be necessary, they are not sufficient. The polis is not an association simply for people to live in the same area, or for the sake of defense against others, or for commerce. While these things may be necessary, they are not sufficient. The polis is only truly a polis when it exists for the sake of “attaining a perfect and self-sufficing existence.” The polis is only truly a polis when it exists for the sake of “attaining a perfect and self-sufficing existence.” “It is therefore for the sake of actions valuable in themselves, and not for the sake of social life, that political associations must be considered to exist.” “It is therefore for the sake of actions valuable in themselves, and not for the sake of social life, that political associations must be considered to exist.” “Those who contribute most to this association have a greater share in the city than those who are equal to them…in free birth and descent, but unequal in civic excellence…” “Those who contribute most to this association have a greater share in the city than those who are equal to them…in free birth and descent, but unequal in civic excellence…”

13. Aristotle cont’d. The crucial thing to remember about Aristotle is that he believed the state or “polis” was a natural progression. The crucial thing to remember about Aristotle is that he believed the state or “polis” was a natural progression. Something natural exists not by force or coercion. It is that which happens “always or for the most part.” Something natural exists not by force or coercion. It is that which happens “always or for the most part.” Unfortunately, this view also led him to claim that women were naturally domestic since he saw that this was their place in most cities. Unfortunately, this view also led him to claim that women were naturally domestic since he saw that this was their place in most cities.

14. Some Questions to Consider Is the city-state a natural development? Is the city-state a natural development? Does the US represent an arrangement in which the good life is promoted, or is it simply an arrangement of space, defense, and/or commerce? Does the US represent an arrangement in which the good life is promoted, or is it simply an arrangement of space, defense, and/or commerce? Why does Aristotle stop at the city-state? Why not go further to larger forms of associations? Why does Aristotle stop at the city-state? Why not go further to larger forms of associations? What does this say about globalization? What does this say about globalization?