1. Human Adjustment John W. Santrock
Chapter 12:
Gender
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2. Chapter Outline Perspectives on Gender Gender Comparisons
Women’s and Men’s Lives
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3. Learning Goals
1. Define gender and explain evolutionary, social, and cognitive theories of gender
2. Discuss gender comparisons and classifications
3. Characterize women’s and men’s lives
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4. PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER
Defining Gender
Evolutionary Psychology Theory
Social Theories
Cognitive Theories
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5. Defining Gender
Gender = the psychological and social dimension of being female or male
Gender roles = sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should act, think, or feel
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6. Evolutionary Psychology Theory
Evolutionary psychology theory - because of their differing roles in reproduction, adaptation during the evolution of humans produced psychological differences between males and females
Multiple sexual liaisons improves likelihood males will pass on their genes
Females’ contributions to gene pool was improved by securing resources for offspring
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7. Social Theories of Gender
Social role theory - gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men
In most cultures, women have less power and status than men and they control fewer resources
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8. Social Theories of Gender
Psychoanalytic theory - preschool children develop sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent, then renounce attraction because of anxious feelings, and subsequently identify with same-sex parent
Social cognitive theory - children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation, and through rewards and punishments for gender appropriate and inappropriate behavior
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9. Cognitive Theories of Gender
Cognitive developmental theory - children’s gender typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys and girls
Gender schema theory - gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture
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10. Review - Learning Goal 1
How can these two terms be defined: gender and gender roles?
What is the evolutionary psychology theory of gender differences?
What are three social theories of gender?
What are two cognitive theories of gender?
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11. GENDER COMPARISONS Gender Stereotypes
Gender Similarities and Differences
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
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12. Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes = general beliefs about females and males
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13. Gender Stereotypes
Broverman looked at traits that college students in the 1970s believed were characteristic of males and females
Instrumental traits were associated with males - independent, aggressive, power-oriented
Expressive traits were associated with females - being warm and sensitive
These traits are unequal in terms of social states and power
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14. Stereotyping and Culture
Research study in 1982 found stereotyping of females and males prevalent in thirty countries
Males were believed to be dominant, independent, aggressive, achievement oriented, and enduring
Females were believed to be nurturing, affiliative, less esteemed, and more helpful in times of distress
More recently, traditional gender stereotypes and gender roles have been challenged, and social inequalities between men and women have diminished
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15. Gender Stereotypes and Ethnicity
We have stereotypes of age as well as gender
We have stereotypes of gender and ethnicity
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16. Sexism
Prejudice and discrimination against women has a long history
Sexism = prejudice and discrimination against an individual because of his or her sex
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17. Physical Similarities and Differences
There are many physical differences between males and females
Females have a longer life expectancy than males
Males have higher levels of stress hormones
Some brain differences have been found between males and females
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18. Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Some research suggests boys are better at math and science
Girls are better students, and significantly better in reading
Janet Hyde (2004) argues that cognitive differences between females and males are exaggerated
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19. Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Boys are more physically aggressive than girls
Girls are as verbally aggressive as boys
Girls show more relational aggression (behaviors such as spreading rumors)
Males usually show less self-regulation of emotions and behavior than females
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20. Interpretation of Gender Differences
Traditionally, differences between males and females were interpreted as biologically-based deficiencies in females
Feminists fear research finding differences will promote stereotypes that women are inferior to men
Alice Eagly argues this fear has biased research interpretation
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21. Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Sandra Bem (1974) developed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory to measure androgyny
Androgyny = presence of a high degree of feminine and masculine characteristics in the same individual
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22. Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Individuals can be classified as having one of four gender-role orientations on Bem’s scale:
androgynous
feminine
masculine
undifferentiated
Androgynous women and men are more flexible and more mentally healthy than either masculine or feminine individuals
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23. Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Gender-role transcendence = thinking about ourselves and others as people, not as masculine, feminine, or androgynous
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24. Review - Learning Goal 2
What is gender stereotyping and how extensive is it?
What are some physical, cognitive, and socioemotional differences in gender?
What are some alternatives to classifying behavior and traits as masculine or feminine?
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25. WOMEN’S AND MEN’S LIVES
Women’s Lives
Men’s Lives
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26. Women’s Lives
In much of the world, people’s lives are governed by traditional gender roles that assign a subordinate status to women
In politics, especially in developing countries, women are treated as burdens rather than assets
Women’s work around the world is more limiting and narrow than men’s
Canada, the United States, and Russia have the highest percentages of educated women
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27. Ethnic Minority Women in the United States
For Asian-American women, gender roles found in the mainstream clash with traditions of ancestors
African-American women take time for consideration before solving problems
Mexican women assume the expressive role of homemaker and caretaker of children
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28. Psychological Health
U.S. women face some special stressors because they are women:
domestic violence
rape
sexism
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29. Psychological Health
Although men have increased involvement in family roles, women still bear the largest burden for housework and childcare, even when they work outside the home
Women have more dissatisfaction with their bodies
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30. Adjustment Strategies for Women
1. Recognize your competencies
2. Pay attention to developing your self as well as your relationship
3. Don’t put up with sexism
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31. Men’s Lives - Ethnic Minority Males
African-American men are more likely to live in poverty
Asian cultural values are reflected in traditional, patriarchal Chinese and Japanese families
Mexican men traditionally assume role of provider, with exaggerated masculinity and aggression
Some Native American tribes are patriarchal
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32. Role Strain
Men face role strain because male roles are contradictory and inconsistent
Men’s roles can cause strain in areas such as:
health
male-female relationships
male-male relationships
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33. Adjustment Strategies for Men
1. Understand yourself and your emotions
2. Improve your social relationships
3. Lower your health risks
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34. Review - Learning Goal 3 What are characteristics of women’s lives?
What are characteristics of men’s lives?
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