1. AS Level Physical Education Skill Acquisition Revision Guide

2. Ability and Skill
‘Abilities are enduring characteristics which underline a persons potential to acquire skill in one sport or another’

3. Ability and Skill
Ability is something you are born with, it is innate.
Abilities are enduring (long-lasting) characteristics which underlie a person's potential to acquire skill in one sport or another.
To be skilful in one particular sport requires the person to have a specific profile of abilities.

4. Abilities
perceptual ability - the ability to detect and use different types of stimuli
conceptual ability - the ability to think through skills quickly
gross abilities - the ability to move the larger parts of the body quickly
fine abilities - the ability to perform delicate movements
kinaesthetic ability - the ability to detect the positions of your limbs in space

5. Perceptual Motor Ability
Finger dexterity
Reaction time
Manual dexterity
Response orientation
Response integration
Speed of movement
Those that involve processing information and implementing movement

6. Gross Motor Ability Static Strength Dynamaic Flexibility
Stamina
Explosive Strength
Dynamic Strength
Dynamaic Flexibility
Trunk Strength
Those that involve movement and often linked to fitness

7. Skill
"The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty, often with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both.“ Knapp
Consistent
Learned
Goal Directed
Characteristics of skill
Economic
Aesthetic
Recognisable
Fluent
Efficient

8. What perceptual skills does the player on the ball need to be successful?

9. Types of Skill
“ Skill is an organised, coordinated activity in relation to an object or situation which involves a whole chain of sensory, central and motor mechanisms” Welford
Cognitive – skills that involve thought process and intellectual ability. What to do, which action to use and when!
Perceptual – Skills that involve selecting, interpreting and making sense of information from our senses.
Psych-motor – movement decided upon and controlled by the brain. Mixture of motor and perceptual.

10. Open/closed skills Open skills Closed skills Unpredictable environment
Decisions to be made
No decisions - same skill

11. Self/externally paced skills
Self-paced skills
Externally-paced skills
Performer decides when to start
Start determined by outside agency
Performer decides speed of movements
Speed of movement decided by others

12. Discrete/serial/ continuous skills
Discrete skills
Continuous skills
Serial skills
Distinct beginning and end
Series of discrete skills
Repetitive - no beginning and end

13. Gross/fine skills Gross skills Fine skills Uses large muscle groups
Uses small muscle groups

14. Information processing
A simplified model
Input – stimuli to sense organs
Decide – what stimuli mean and what to do
Output – motor programme runs muscles

15. 3 stages to decision-making
Stimulus identification stage
Decide what information represents
Response selection stage
Decide on an appropriate response
Response programming stage
Decide how to organise response

16. Stimulus identification
Expanded IP model
Sense organs
Stimulus identification
Response selection
Muscles -movement
Response programming

17. Stimulus identification
Anything missing?
Memory
Senses
Response selection
Stimulus identification
Response programming
Movement
Feedback

18. Input 3 main senses involved in sport 4 Eyes/vision/visual sense
Ears/hearing/auditory sense
Touch/proprioception
Body awareness / kinaesthetic sense

19. Three components/stages
Perception
Three components/stages
Detection
Comparison
Recognition

20. Idea of single channel hypothesis
Selective attention
Idea of single channel hypothesis

21. Memory
Short-term sensory storage
Short-term memory
Long-term memory

22. Characteristics
STSS – lasts seconds; requires immediate attention or is lost
STM – only attended information; limited capacity and duration; DCR occurs in STM; rehearsed information goes to LTM
LTM – unlimited capacity; requires rehearsal, meaningfulness, speed of learning and overlearning to be remembered/retrieved

23. Expanded model of IP Long-term memory Short-term memory Feedback
Sense organs
Stimulus
Perception
Decision
Movement
Feedback

24. Typical question
(a) A basic information processing system consists of perception, translation and effector control. Explain what you understand by these terms, using appropriate examples from volleyball. (6 marks) (b) Selective attention is an important part of information processing. How can a coach improve a player’s selective attention? (3 marks)

25. Answer
Perception – make sense of incoming information; e.g the ball has left the opposition server’s hand/equiv; Translation – decision making; E.g. the ball is at chest height I will use a set/volley/equiv; Effector control – motor programme/doing the movement; Send impulses to the muscular system in order for the movement to be carried out; E.g hands high/viewfinder/extend the legs. (1 mark for description and 1 mark for appropriate example) (d) Increase intensity of the stimulus/e.g’s; Motivate and arouse the performer; Highlight/ focus cues; Learn to ignore irrelevant stimulus;

26. Decision-making Response time Movement time Reaction time
Time taken from initiation of signal to completion of movement
Response time
Time taken from start of movement to completion of movement
Movement time
Time taken from initiation of signal to beginning of movement
Reaction time

27. Reaction time Simple – single stimulus or single response
Choice – several stimuli or responses to be selected from
Hick’s Law – more choices more time needed to decide

28. Reaction time - implications
Avoid repeating movements/same response – becomes SRT for opponent – easy to react to
Choice RT – provide variety of responses – means opponent has to select from many stimuli
Practice – develop as wide a range of actions as possible

29. Psychological refractory period
Unable to respond to second stimulus until first stimulus has been responded to – because of single channel
Basis of ‘faking’ or ‘dummying’
Give a signal concerning intended movement, then move another way – opponent responds to first signal before responding to second signal, by which time you are long gone!

30. Typical question
In team games such as basketball or netball, performers need to make rapid decisions. (i) Give an appropriate example from a team game of simple reaction time and choice reaction time. (2 marks) (ii) The ‘Psychological Refractory Period’ often occurs in team games. Explain, using an example of this from a team game, how and why it occurs. (3 marks)

31. Answer
(i) SRT - movement to whistle/equiv; CRT - movements of own players on court and who to pass to/equiv; (ii) The use of a deception/fake/dummy/in a named team game situation/equiv; Only process one item of information at a time/equiv; Response to later information likely to be delayed/equiv; Due to responding to first stimulus.

32. Feedback 3 functions Change incorrect response
Reinforce correct response
Motivate performer

33. Types of feedback Intrinsic Extrinsic Sourced from within
Knowledge of results
Knowledge of performance
Immediate/delayed
Concurrent/terminal
Sourced from within
Sourced from outside
Concerning end result of action
Concerning movement pattern
Before/after completion
During/at end of action

34. Typical question
Swimmers will experience different types of feedback both during and after a performance. (a) Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance are two types of feedback. Explain these two types of feedback. (2 marks) (b) What are the three main benefits of feedback to a swimmer? (3 marks) (c) What are the characteristics of ‘effective feedback’ for a swimmer? (4 marks)

35. Answer
(a) KR – outcome of action; KP – information about movement/kinesthesis/feel of movement/intrinsic; (b) Correct errors/improve technique/highlight weaknesses; Reinforcement/illustrate success/highlight strengths; Motivation/self-confidence; (c) Process only limited amount of information/succinct/short; Clear information/accurate/correct/relevant/simple; Immediate; Individualised; Different forms – verbal and visual; Intrinsic; Terminal better for beginners/concurrent for elite; Positive for beginners/Negative for advanced;

36. Open loop theory
Executive
(decides)
Effector
(does it)

37. Motor programmes - Open loop theory
No feedback.
Pre-planned actions.
Explains fast, ‘ballistic’ movements
Stored as executive programmes that simply run and cannot be adjusted

38. Closed loop theory
Motor command
Executive
Effector
Feedback

39. Adam’s Closed loop theory
Feedback involved.
‘Memory trace’ recalls previous correct responses and initiates movement
‘Perceptual trace’ as a model of correctness that is adjusted and strengthened through practice.
Does not account for actions too fast for feedback
Does not explain limits of memory

40. Schema theory Four relationships (schema) stored for every movement.
Initial conditions
General motor programme
Knowledge of results
Sensory consequences

41. Schema theory Recall schema provides motor programme – 1 and 2
Recognition schema evaluates responses – 3 and 4

42. Typical question
(a) In relation to skilled performance, what do you understand by the terms motor programme and subroutines? Give appropriate examples from a tennis serve. (3 marks) (b) Schmidt’s schema theory is based on four sources of information which are used to modify motor programmes. List the four sources of information. (4 marks) (c) How can a coach organise practices to enable a schema to develop? (3 marks)

43. Answer
(a) Motor programme – Controls movement/set of instructions/made up of subroutines/plan of action stored in memory (long term)/equiv; Subroutines – Sequences of movement, which are performed automatically/isolated aspects of a movement/practised in parts/equiv; Grip/footwork/backward swing/forward swing/ball toss/contact with ball/follow through; (minimum of three examples for 1 mark) (b) (Knowledge of) initial conditions/set up/requirement of skills; (Knowledge of) response specifications/demands/what is needed; Sensory consequences/Kinesthesis/Knowledge of Performance/KP; Movement outcomes/Knowledge of Results/KR;

44. Answer
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples; Should include plenty of information; Should have feedback; Should be realistic to the game/activity; Should include transferable elements; Becoming more challenging/more difficult.

45. Answer
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples; Should include plenty of information; Should have feedback; Should be realistic to the game/activity; Should include transferable elements; Becoming more challenging/more difficult.

46. Answer
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed practice/examples; Should include plenty of information; Should have feedback; Should be realistic to the game/activity; Should include transferable elements; Becoming more challenging/more difficult.

47. Learning A relatively permanent change in behaviour
Seen to have occurred in performance of skill
Improvements in performance seen as a learning curve

48. Learning curve no improvement Performance deteriorates
Learning plateau
Period of rapid improvement
little early improvement

49. Causes of a learning plateau
Fatigue
Loss of motivation/boredom
Technical deficiencies

50. Preventing a learning plateau
If fatigued – Rest/recovery periods
To motivate - Rewards/goals
Limited skill - Change style/method of practice or isolate and correct faulty technique

51. Learning theories
The production of a stimulus produces an appropriate response (associationist or S-R theories)
Conditioning theories - link between stimulus and response (bond) strengthened by reinforcement
Classical and operant conditioning

52. Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is praise
Increases probability of repeat of behaviour/success
Strengthens S-R bond
Negative reinforcement also encourages repeat of success
But involves removal of negative/ unpleasant stimulus when desired response occurs - coach/crowd stop barracking

53. Punishment
Punishment is used to stop repeat of undesired/unsuccessful behaviour/ attempt
Inhibits S-R bond strengthening

54. Examples
positive reinforcement – the games player makes an accurate pass (behaviour) and the teacher shouts ‘nice pass’ (reinforced)
negative reinforcement – the teacher who constantly shouts from the touchline suddenly stops shouting; the players know that their behaviour must now be correct
punishment - giving a red card for a foul in a game serves to prevent that behaviour happening again

55. Classical conditioning
Learn unconditioned response to conditioned stimulus e.g. Pavlov’s dogs
Rare in sport
Can be used to reduce anxiety prior to performance – relaxation through calming phrase and physical cue

56. Operant conditioning
Trial and error learning - behaviour reinforced - success/praise motivates to repeat success
Thorndike’s laws
exercise - rehearse to strengthen bond
effect - rewards strengthen bond
readiness - performer able to do task

57. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning = trial and error learning
Based on S-R relationship
Coach manipulates environment to achieve desired response (shaping) – target/feeder/conditions/etc
Uses reinforcement to bring about desired response

58. Observational Learning
Copying/mimicing another's behaviour/action
Requires learning to be:
Attentive
Capable of remembering (retention)
Capable of performing (production)
Willing to learn (motivation)

59. Cognitive theories
Insight learning - concerned with understanding rather than linking S-R
Work out what is happening - whole practice, rather than learning skills in isolation

60. Stages of Learning
Cognitive – understanding nature of task; develop motor programme; requires demonstration from coach; feedback is extrinsic; many errors
Associative – practice stage; less visual more proprioceptive; fewer but repetitive errors
Autonomous – skill mastered; little conscious effort; processing used for strategies rather than skill

61. Transfer of Learning Positive - benefits Negative - hindrance
Bilateral – from one side to other
Proactive – current skill helps future skill
Retroactive – current skill improves past skill

62. Teaching Styles, Presentation of Practice, Types of Practice and Methods of Guidance

63. Teaching Styles
Command
Reciprocal
Discovery
Problem Solving

64. Command
Teacher makes all the decisions with no input from the learners
Clear instructions and objectives, large groups catered for, control and discipline maintained
Possible lack of understanding, little social interaction, little creativity, limited individual feedback

65. Command Used when: Groups are large or undisciplined
Novice performers need to be taught recognised techniques
Dangerous situations
Complex skills

66. Reciprocal Style
Most decisions made by teacher with some learner input
Instructions and objectives are clear, social interaction skills are developed, some individual feedback received, self-confidence increased
May be difficult for beginners, performers may lack communication skills, unable to analyse movement, difficult to monitor for teacher

67. Reciprocal Used when: Learners are more experienced
Simple skills are involved
Limited danger is present
Time is available

68. Discovery
Teacher guides performer to find the correct movement by providing information, giving specific clues or asking questions
Encourages creativity and decision making skills, responsibility for own learning, increased motivation and self confidence
Time consuming, difficult for those who lack creativity, progress of large groups is difficult to monitor

69. Discovery Used when: Creativity is required
There is no right or wrong answer
More experienced performers are involved

70. Problem Solving
Problem set by teacher and solved by student. There is no right or wrong answer
Encourages creativity and develops cognitive skills

71. Choose a style!
Novice performer throwing javelin Novice performer developing a gym routine Experienced basketball players practicing free throws in a practice session Sixth from students rock climbing for the first time Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the first time, in a 50 minute lesson Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the third lesson in a series or four An outside coach coming in to take a kick boxing lesson at a club for the first time

72. What have you based you decision on?
Choose a style!
What have you based you decision on?

73. Factors to consider
Nature of performer – experience, stage of learning, age, gender, size of group
Nature of task – open or closed skill, gross or fine, discrete serial or continuous, self or externally paced
Experience – amount of knowledge, personality, relationship with group
Environmental conditions – facilities, time available, purpose of the session

74. Presentation of practice
Whole Learning
Part Learning
Progressive Part Method
Whole-Part-Whole Method

75. Whole learning
Performer attempts the whole movement following instructions or demonstration
Develop an awareness of entire movement and understand the relationship between different subroutines immediately
Difficult to use with complex skills, difficult for novice performers, not ideal for dangerous skills

76. Whole Learning Ideally used when: Skill is discrete or ballistic
Subroutines lack meaning
Performer is motivated
Performer is experienced

77. Part Learning
Performer attempts all sub routines before attempting skill as a whole
Complex skills are broken down into subroutines, specific aspects of technique modified, develops confidence on completion
It hinders timing of complete skill, reduces kinaesthetic awareness, transfer part-whole may not be effective, time consuming

78. Part Learning Ideally used when: The skill is complex
Skill involves long sequences
Performer has limited attention span
Inexperienced

79. Progressive Part Method
Subroutines linked (chaining) once each individual part is learned
Complex skills introduced gradually, novice performers achieve quick success, development of understanding of subroutines, transfer to whole is easier
Time consuming, too much focus on particular subroutines

80. Progressive Part Method
Ideally used when:
Skill is complex, serial or dangerous
Time is not a constraint
Performer is inexperienced

81. Whole-Part-Whole Method
Performer attempts whole skill and then develops specific subroutines before completing the whole skill
An overall feel for movement developed initially, success is ongoing as subroutines are developed
Transfer form part to whole is difficult

82. Choose a method
A novice athlete learning the triple jump Year 9 class learning how to head a football A premier rugby team learning a set tactical move A golfer practicing his tee shot An experienced fast bowler practicing his action An inexperienced cricketer learning a bowling technique A gymnastics floor routine A year 11 team practicing basketball lay ups A hockey flick An athlete working on their sprint start Mr Kirk learning a dance routine

83. Types of Practice Practice occurs after the presentation of practice
Coach to decide on type ensuring learning occurs, motivation is maintained and fatigue does not affect performance
Four Types:
Massed
Distributed
Variable
Mental

84. Massed Ptractice
Repeated practice with little or no recovery period between blocks
Ideally used when:
Skills are discrete
Performer is motivated
Performer is experienced
High level of fitness
Replication of fatigue in games is required
Possible problems – boredom and fatigue

85. Distributed Practice
Repeated practice followed by recovery period before repetition or new task
Recovery period may involve other form of activity not just rest (mental practice or feedback)
Ideally used when:
The skill is new and complex
The performer is a novice
Low levels of motivation
Low levels of fitness
Short attention span
Recovery period can lead to – de-motivation, loss of concentration and lack of discipline

86. Variable Practice Coach uses a mixture of massed and variable practice
Maintains interest levels and motivation
Helps to limit the effects of fatigue when required

87. Mental Practice Cognitive rehearsal of skill without physical movement
Used before, during or after performance
Internal – sees themselves from within (kinaesthetic feel)
External – seeing themselves as if they were a spectator
Creates mental image, reduces reaction time, improve anticipation and control arousal

88. Mental Rehearsal Ideally used when: Learning time needs to be reduced
Preparing for alternative situations or experiences
Concentrate on specific aspects or the overall skill
Arousal needs to be controlled
Performer is injured
Optimised by
Quiet Location
Encouraging successful outcomes
Regular practice
Use during recovery period

89. Methods of Guidance
Guidance is used to develop movement patterns and reduce errors made in performance
Guidance depends on the situation, nature of the task and ability of performer
Types: Visual, Verbal, Manual and Mechanical

90. Visual Guidance
Creating a mental picture through observation of demos, videos, pictures etc
Can also be developed through modifying the playing area
To optimise visual guidance: accurate demo, focus on key points, info relevant to age and ability and clear and realistic stimuli

91. Visual Guidance Advantages Disadvantages
Good for performers in the cognitive stage of learning
Provides a clear idea of the movement pattern to be performed
Specific cues can be highlighted
Disadvantages
De-motivation if the performer is unable to replicate the skill
Can provide too much information for a novice
Static forms of guidance soon loose their impact

92. Verbal Guidance
Explaining the motor skill to be performed, understanding the requirements and feedback
General or specific depending on ability
To optimise visual guidance: clear and accurate info, limit the amount of information required, language and terminology relevant to age group, most effective with visual guidance

93. Visual Guidance Advantages Disadvantages
Good for all stages of learning if combined with other types of guidance
Useful in the autonomous stage of learning
Feedback can be given immediately either during or after the performance
Focus the performers attention on specific cues when watching a demo
Disadvantages
De-motivation if unable to replicate the skill
Overload of information may occur
Difficulty in understanding, especially for novice performers
Some movement may be difficult to explain

94. Manual Guidance
Involves the performer being physically placed or supported into correct position
To optimise manual guidance: avoid over use of kinaesthetic awareness will not develop, combine with verbal guidance and ensure movement pattern is correct

95. Manual Guidance Advantages Disadvantages
Good for all stages of learning especially novice
Reduce fear and builds confidence
Helps to reduce risks in some potentially dangerous situations
Development of correct kinaesthetic awareness
Disadvantages
Performer becomes over reliant on help and support
Lack of intrinsic feedback
Difficult to learn for own mistakes and correct them independently
Difficult in large groups

96. Mechanical Guidance
Similar to manual but uses some form of device or support
Trampolining and swimming use them