1. Money Growth and Inflation12
Money Growth and Inflation

2. Money Growth and Inflation
In chapter 11, we saw how money is defined and measured.
In chapter 6 we saw how the price level and its rate of inflation are defined and measured.
In this chapter, we will see that the quantity of money determines the price level.
The quantity theory of money explains the long-run determinants of the price level and the inflation rate.

3. Money Growth and Inflation
More specifically, in this chapter, we will see that
The quantity of money in an economy determines its price level, and
The growth rate of the quantity of money determines the growth rate of the price level (also called the rate of inflation)

4. Recap: The Meaning of Money
Money is the set of assets that people regularly use to buy things from other people.
The quantity of money in an economy consists mainly of:
Currency with the public, and
Deposits in checkable accounts
See Chapter 11.

5. INFLATION Inflation is an increase in the overall level of prices.
Hyperinflation is an extraordinarily high rate of inflation.
See Chapter 6 on the measurement of the price level and its rate of inflation.

6. Inflation in the U.S.
Over the past 70 years, prices have risen on average about 4 percent per year in the U.S.
Deflation, meaning decreasing average prices, occurred in the U.S. in the nineteenth century.
The price level was 23% lower in 1896 than in 1880
In the 1970s prices rose by 7 percent per year.
During the 1990s, prices rose at an average rate of 2 percent per year.

7. Inflation: Historical Aspects
Hyperinflation refers to high rates of inflation such as Germany experienced in the 1920s.
The price of a newspaper rose from 0.30 marks in January 1921 to 70,000,000 marks less than two years later

8. The value of money
This does not mean that Germans suddenly felt that newspapers were incredibly wonderful things!
What this means is that money became less valuable to Germans.
We see from this example that price increases have more to do with the value of money than with the value of goods.
Therefore, if we understand the value of money, we will understand the prices of goods

9. THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF INFLATION
When the overall price level rises, the value of money falls.
Suppose the price of a gallon of ice-cream is $5. Then, the value of a dollar—that is, its purchasing is 1/5 gallons of ice-cream.
In general, let P be the price level.
Specifically, P could be the Consumer Price Index or the GDP Deflator.
Then, 1/P is the value of money measured in units of goods and services
When the overall price level rises, the value of money falls

10. Money Supply, Money Demand, and Monetary Equilibrium
The money supply is a policy variable that is controlled by the Fed.
Through instruments such as open-market operations, the Fed directly controls the quantity of money supplied.
Bullet 2: Mankiw has removed the word, “directly”

11. Money Supply, Money Demand, and Monetary Equilibrium
Although money demand has several determinants, including interest rates, the most important factor is the average level of prices in the economy.
People hold money because it is the medium of exchange.
The amount of money people choose to hold depends on the prices of goods and services.
The higher prices are, the more money the typical transaction requires, and the more money people will choose to hold in their wallets and in their checking accounts.

12. Money Supply, Money Demand, and Monetary Equilibrium
In the long run, the overall level of prices adjusts to the level at which the demand for money equals the supply.
This is monetary equilibrium.

13. Figure 1 Money Supply, Money Demand, and the Equilibrium Price Level
Value of
Price
Money,
Quantity fixed
by the Fed
Money supply 1 / P
Level, P
(High) 1
Money
demand 1
(Low) 3 /
1.33 4 A 1 / 2 2
Equilibrium
value of
money
Equilibrium
price level 1 / 4 4
(Low)
(High)
Quantity of
Money
Copyright © South-Western

14. Figure 2 The Effects of Monetary Injection
Value of
Price
Money, M1
MS1 M2
MS2 1 / P
Level, P
(High) 1
Money
demand 1
(Low)
1. An increase
in the money
supply . . . 3 /
1.33 4
decreases
the value of
mone
y . . . 3.
. . . and
increases
the price
level. A 1 / 2 2 B 1 / 4 4
(Low)
(High)
Quantity of
Money
Copyright © South-Western

15. The Quantity Theory of Money
The quantity theory of money says that:
The quantity of money available in the economy determines the value of money.
As the value of money is 1/P, when the value of money is determined, so is P.
The primary cause of inflation is the growth in the quantity of money.

16. Helicopter Drop: Suppose a lot of newly-printed cash is dropped from a helicopter

17. Helicopter Drop
If a lot of newly-printed cash is dropped from a helicopter …
People could try to spend the extra cash they pick up
They could put the cash in their bank accounts. But even in this case, the banks will lend the money to borrowers and stimulate even more spending
Recall the money multiplier! Chapter 11
But there isn’t any extra stuff to buy because productive capacity has not changed.
See Chapter 7.
Therefore, the only change is that prices go up.

18. The Quantity Theory of Money
“Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon”
Milton Friedman ( ).

19. The Classical Dichotomy and Monetary Neutrality
Nominal variables are variables measured in monetary units.
Real variables are variables measured in physical units.

20. The Classical Dichotomy and Monetary Neutrality
According to David Hume ( ) and others, real economic variables are not affected by changes in the money supply.
According to the classical dichotomy, different forces influence real and nominal variables.
Changes in the money supply affect nominal variables but not real variables.

21. The Classical Dichotomy and Monetary Neutrality
The irrelevance of monetary changes for real variables is called monetary neutrality.
Monetary neutrality is thought to prevail in the long run.
That is why we could study real variables, such as GDP, saving, investment, the real interest rate, the unemployment rate, etc., in Part 5 of this book (“The Real Economy in the Long Run”) before we began studying money in Part 6 (“Money and Prices in the Long Run”)

22. The Quantity Equation
The quantity theory of money can also be expressed algebraically as the quantity equation

23. Velocity and the Quantity Equation
The velocity of money refers to the speed at which the typical dollar bill travels around the economy from wallet to wallet. Equivalently,
The velocity of money, V, is the number of times per year that a typical dollar bill is used to buy a newly produced good or service. Therefore,

24. Velocity and the Quantity Equation
M × V is the total dollar value of all newly produced goods and services. Therefore, we can also write:
M × V = P × Y
This is the quantity equation.

25. Velocity The quantity equation (M × V = P × Y) implies:
V = (P  Y) / M

26. Figure 3: Nominal GDP, the Quantity of Money, and the Velocity of Money
This figure shows the nominal value of output as measured by nominal GDP, the quantity of money as measured by M2, and the velocity of money as measured by their ratio. For comparability, all three series have been scaled to equal 100 in Notice that nominal GDP and the quantity of money have grown dramatically over this period, while velocity has been relatively stable.

27. Velocity and the Quantity Equation
The velocity of money is relatively stable over time.
Also, as we saw in Chapter 7, money does not affect output. Therefore,
M  V = P  Y implies that
Any change in M causes an proportionate change in P. Therefore,
Inflation is caused by rapid increases in the quantity of money.

28. CASE STUDY: Money and Prices during Four Hyperinflations
Hyperinflation is inflation that exceeds 50 percent per month.
Hyperinflation occurs in some countries because the government prints too much money to pay for its spending.
Align text for second bullet.

29. Figure 4 Money and Prices During Four Hyperinflations
(a) Austria
(b) Hungary
Index
Index
(Jan = 100)
(July 1921 = 100)
100,000
100,000
Price level
Price level
10,000
10,000
Money supply
Money supply
1,000
1,000
100
100
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
Copyright © South-Western

30. Figure 4 Money and Prices During Four Hyperinflations
(c) Germany
(d) Poland
Index
Index
(Jan = 100)
(Jan = 100)
100,000,000,000,000
10,000,000
Price level
1,000,000,000,000
1,000,000
Price level
10,000,000,000
Money
supply
100,000
Money
supply
100,000,000
1,000,000
10,000
10,000
1,000
100 1
100
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
Copyright © South-Western

31. Why do governments print so much money?
The Inflation Tax
Why do governments print so much money?
To pay for government spending when taxation is not an option.
When the government raises revenue by printing money, it is said to levy an inflation tax.
An inflation tax is like a tax on everyone who holds money.
The inflation ends when the government institutes fiscal reforms—such as cuts in government spending—that ends the need to print money

32. Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe
During the 2000s, the Zimbabwe government was unable to cut spending enough or raise tax revenues enough to close its budget deficit
And it could not borrow, as nobody would lend it money
So, it printed money to cover its budget deficit
The result was rampant inflation

33. Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe
Before the hyperinflation began, the Zimbabwe dollar was worth a bit more than the US dollar
In January 2008, however, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, the central bank, issued a note worth 10 million Zimbabwe dollars, which was then equivalent to about four (4) US dollars
A year later, a note worth 10 trillion Zimbabwe dollars, equivalent to three (3) US dollars, was issued

34. Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe

35. Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe
Sign in a restroom in South Africa
Source: which estimated that the cost of one sheet of toilet paper had reached 3,600 Zimbabwe dollars

36. Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe
The Zimbabwe hyperinflation ended in 2009 when the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe stopped printing Zimbabwe dollars and the nation began using foreign currencies such as the US dollar and the South African rand

37. The Fisher Effect
Real interest rate = nominal interest rate – inflation
Real interest rate + inflation = nominal interest rate
inflation is caused by money growth
We just saw this
The real interest rate is determined in the market for loanable funds.
See Chapter 8
Money growth cannot affect the real interest rate. Therefore,
Any change in inflation must be accompanied by an equal change in the nominal interest rate.
This is called the Fisher effect, after economist Irving Fisher (1867 – 1947).
The equation of the fisher effect must appear here or on a new next slide:
“Nominal interest rate = real interest rate + inflation rate”

38. Figure 5 The Nominal Interest Rate and the Inflation Rate
This figure uses annual data since 1960 to show the nominal interest rate on three-month Treasury bills and the inflation rate as measured by the consumer price index. The close association between these two variables is evidence for the Fisher effect: When the inflation rate rises, so does the nominal interest rate.

39. Figure 5 The Nominal Interest Rate and the Inflation Rate

40. THE COSTS OF INFLATION
Inflation does not in itself reduce people’s real purchasing power.
Recall from Chapter 7 that GDP is determined by other factors.
But there are other costs of inflation

41. THE COSTS OF INFLATION Shoe leather costs Menu costs
Relative price variability
Tax distortions
Confusion and inconvenience
Arbitrary redistribution of wealth

42. This takes up valuable time and energy
Shoeleather Costs
Shoeleather costs are the resources wasted when inflation encourages people to reduce their money holdings.
Inflation reduces the real value of money, so people have an incentive to minimize their cash holdings or find ways to protect their wealth.
This takes up valuable time and energy

43. Shoeleather Costs
Less cash requires more frequent trips to the bank to withdraw money from interest-bearing accounts.
The actual cost of reducing your money holdings is the time and convenience you must sacrifice to keep less money on hand.
Also, extra trips to the bank take time away from productive activities.

44. Menu costs are the costs of adjusting prices.
During inflationary times, it is necessary to update price lists and other posted prices.
This is a resource-consuming process that takes away from other productive activities.

45. Relative-Price Variability and the Misallocation of Resources
Inflation distorts relative prices.
This distortion is caused by:
Menu costs, and
Uncoordinated price changes
Consumer decisions are distorted, and markets are less able to allocate resources to their best use.

46. Inflation-Induced Tax Distortion
Inflation exaggerates the size of capital gains and increases the tax burden on this type of income.

47. Inflation-Induced Tax Distortion
The income tax treats the nominal interest earned on savings as income, even though part of the nominal interest rate merely compensates for inflation.
The after-tax real interest rate falls, making saving less attractive.

48. Table 1 How Inflation Raises the Tax Burden on Saving

49. Confusion and Inconvenience
When the Fed increases the money supply and creates inflation, it erodes the real value of the unit of account.
Inflation causes dollars at different times to have different real values.
Therefore, with rising prices, it is more difficult to compare real revenues, costs, and profits over time.

50. When there’s unexpected inflation, lenders lose and borrowers gain
A Special Cost of Unexpected Inflation: Arbitrary Redistribution of Wealth
When there’s unexpected inflation, lenders lose and borrowers gain
When there’s unexpected deflation, lenders gain and borrowers lose
These redistributions occur because many loans in the economy are specified in terms of the unit of account—money.
Unexpected inflation redistributes wealth among the population in a way that has nothing to do with either merit or need.

51. How to protect your savings from inflation
You can lend money to the US government without taking any inflation risk!
The U.S. Treasury sells inflation-protected bonds.
For these bonds, both interest payments and the principal that is repaid when the bond matures are adjusted for inflation.
So, buyers of these bonds are protected from inflation
These bonds are of two types:
Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS)
I Savings bonds
These bonds can be bought directly from
Inflation-indexed bonds are also sold by foreign governments and by private corporations

52. Summary
The overall level of prices in an economy adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance.
When the central bank increases the supply of money, it causes the price level to rise.
Persistent growth in the quantity of money supplied leads to continuing inflation.

53. Summary
The principle of money neutrality asserts that changes in the quantity of money influence nominal variables but not real variables.
A government can pay for its spending simply by printing more money.
This can result in an “inflation tax” and hyperinflation.

54. Summary
According to the Fisher effect, when the inflation rate rises, the nominal interest rate rises by the same amount, and the real interest rate stays the same.
Many people think that inflation makes them poorer because it raises the cost of what they buy.
This view is a fallacy because inflation also raises nominal incomes.

55. Summary Economists have identified six costs of inflation:
Shoeleather costs
Menu costs
Increased variability of relative prices
Unintended tax liability changes
Confusion and inconvenience
Arbitrary redistributions of wealth

56. Summary
When banks loan out their deposits, they increase the quantity of money in the economy.
Because the Fed cannot control the amount bankers choose to lend or the amount households choose to deposit in banks, the Fed’s control of the money supply is imperfect.
I believe this slide is out of place. It belongs in the previous chapter. Delete it here.