1. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, 3e Chapter 16: Motivation (Hypothalamic control of eating, drinking and temperature)

2. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Hypothalamus, Homeostasis, And Motivated Behavior Homeostasis –Maintains the internal environment within a narrow physiological range Role of Hypothalamus –Regulates homeostasis Three components of neuronal response –Humoral response: Stim hormone release –Visceromotor response: Control autonomic N.S –Somatic motor response: Elicit regulatory behaviors

3. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Hypothalamus, Homeostasis, And Motivated Behavior (Cont’d) Example of motivated behaviors –Response when body is cold Body shivers, blood shunted away from the body surface, urine production inhibited, body fat reserves - mobilized –Lateral hypothalamus Initiates motivation to actively seek or generate warmth - Homeostasis

4. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Long-term Regulation of Feeding Behavior Energy Balance –Prandial state - Anabolism: Energy storage as glycogen and triglycerides –Postabsorptive state - Catabolism: Breaking down complex macromolecules

5. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Long-term Regulation of Feeding Behavior Energy Balance

6. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding Body Fat and Food Consumption –Lipostatic hypothesis –Parabiosis: e.g., Siamese twins –Leptin Regulates body mass Decreases appetite Increases energy expenditure –Leptin depletion Incites adaptive responses to fight starvation

7. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding The Hypothalamus and Feeding –Anorexia: lateral hypothalamic syndrome –Obesity: ventromedial hypothalamic syndrome –Both related to leptin signaling

8. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding The Hypothalamus and Feeding –Hypothalamic nuclei important for the control of feeding

9. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding Response to Elevated Leptin Levels –Activation of arcuate neurons that release αMSH and CART peptides Anorectic peptides- diminish appetite –Activation of arcuate neurons that release αMSH and CART peptides (Cont’d) Project to regions that orchestrate coordinated response of humoral, visceromotor, and somatic responses Paraventricular nucleus (humoral response) Intermediolateral gray matter of spinal cord Lateral hypothalamus

10. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding Response to Elevated Leptin Levels

11. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding Response to Decreased Leptin Levels –Activation of arcuate neurons that release NPY and AgRP (Leptin inhibits these cells) –Effects on energy balance: Opposite to the effects of αMSH and CART –Orexigenic peptides– increase appetite NPY and AgRP inhibit secretion of TSH and ACTH Activate parasympathetic division of ANS Stimulate feeding behavior

12. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding Response to Decreased Leptin Levels

13. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding The Control of Feeding by Lateral Hypothalamic Peptides –LH neurons stimulating feeding behavior contain: Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) Orexin

14. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding Summary: Anorectic and Orexigenic Peptides of the Hypothalamus

15. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Short-Term Regulation of Feeding Behavior Model for short-term regulation of feeding –3 phases: Cephalic; Gastric; Substrate

16. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Short-Term Regulation of Feeding Behavior Model for short-term regulation of feeding –Cephalic: Hunger Ghrelin released when stomach is empty Activates NPY- and AgRP-containing neurons in arcuate nucleus

17. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Short-Term Regulation of Feeding Behavior Model for short-term regulation of feeding –Gastric: Feeling full Gastric distension signals brain via vagus Works synergistically with CCK released in intestines in response to certain foods Insulin also released by B cells of the pancreas - important in anabolism

18. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins The Short-Term Regulation of Feeding Behavior Model for short-term regulation of feeding –Changes in blood insulin levels before, during, and after a meal –Highest during “substrate” phase

19. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Why Do We Eat? Reinforcement and Reward –Liking: Hedonic –Wanting: Drive reduction –Electrical self-stimulation: Experiments to identify sites of reinforcement –Effective sites for self-stimulation: Trajectory of dopaminergic axons in the ventral tegmental area projecting to the forebrain –Drugs that block dopamine receptors: Reduce self- stimulation

20. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Why Do We Eat? Mesocorticolimbic dopamine system

21. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Why Do We Eat? The Role of Dopamine in Motivation –Old belief: Dopamine projection served hedonic reward –New understanding Dopamine-depleted animals “like” food but “do not want” food Lack motivation to seek food, but enjoy it when available –Stimulation of the dopamine axons Craving for food without increasing the hedonic impact

22. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Why Do We Eat? Changes in hypothalamic serotonin levels –Low:Postabsorptive period –Rise: In anticipation of food –Spike: During meals –Mood elevation - Rise in blood tryptophan and brain serotonin

23. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Why Do We Eat? The Role of Dopamine in Motivation –Serotonin, Food, and Mood (Cont’d) Drugs that elevate serotonin levels Example: Dexfenfluramine (Redux)- reduce appetite –Disorders: Anorexia nervosa; Bulimia nervosa  both often accompanied by depression –Treatment Antidepressant drugs—elevate brain serotonin levels Example: Fluoxetine (“Prozac”)

24. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Motivated Behaviors Drinking: Pathways triggering volumetric thirst –Hypovolemia: Decrease in blood volume

25. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Motivated Behaviors Drinking: Pathway triggering osmotic thirst –Hypertonicity: Increased concentration of dissolved substances in blood (salt)

26. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Motivated Behaviors Drinking: Vasopressin - Antidiuretic hormone or ADH Acts on kidneys to increase water retention Inhibit urine production Diabetes insipidus - loss of vasopressin

27. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Motivated Behaviors Temperature Regulation –Cells fine-tuned for constant temperature—37°C (98.6ºF) –Neurons for temperature homeostasis Clustered in anterior hypothalamus Humoral and visceromotor responses Neurons in the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus Somatic motor (behavioral) responses Neurons of lateral hypothalamic area

28. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Motivated Behaviors Temperature Regulation (Cont’d) –Process during a fall in temperature: –Visceromotor response: Goosebumps –Involuntary somatic motor response Shivering, seeking warmth –Rise in temperature: Metabolism slowed by reducing TSH release TSH released by anterior pituitary TSH stimulates release of thyroxin from thyroid gland Increase in cellular metabolism

29. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Other Motivated Behaviors Temperature Regulation (Cont’d) –Hypothalmic responses to stimuli that motivate behavior

30. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Concluding Remarks Overview of motor systems –Addressed “how” questions of behavior e.g., How is movement initiated? Overview of motivation systems –Addresses “why” questions of behavior e.g., mechanisms of motivation to drink when dehydrated? The important discovery of a neural basis for feeding behavior –Allows us to frame new questions that will impact how we view our own behaviors

31. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins End of Presentation

32. Copyright © 2007 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Introduction Types of behavior –Unconscious reflexes and Voluntary Movements –Motivation Driving force on behavior Analogy– ionic driving force dependent upon many factors Probability and direction of behavior Vary with the driving force needed to perform the behavior