1. CAS LX 502 Semantics 9b. Presupposition, entailments, and implicatures 10.2, 11

2. Truth and falsity Pat is hungry. Pat is hungry. True under some possible circumstances, false under others. True under some possible circumstances, false under others. True if the “actual world” is in the “Pat is hungry” half. True if the “actual world” is in the “Pat is hungry” half. Pat is hungryPat is not hungry

3. Truth and falsity Pat is hungry. Pat is hungry. Pat is sleepy. Pat is sleepy. If we know the truth value of each of these sentences, we know in which “quadrant” of the space of possible worlds we can find the “actual world.” If we know the truth value of each of these sentences, we know in which “quadrant” of the space of possible worlds we can find the “actual world.” Pat is hungry Pat is not hungry Pat is not sleepy Pat is hungry Pat is sleepy Pat is not sleepy

4. Entailment I dropped a yellow pencil. I dropped a yellow pencil. I dropped a pencil. I dropped a pencil. The first sentence entails the second. p  q. The first sentence entails the second. p  q. Any circumstance under which the first sentence is true, the second sentence is also true. Any circumstance under which the first sentence is true, the second sentence is also true. We can draw this pictorially by representing the first sentence as a subset of the second. Possible worlds where the first sentence are true are always be possible worlds where the second sentence is true. We can draw this pictorially by representing the first sentence as a subset of the second. Possible worlds where the first sentence are true are always be possible worlds where the second sentence is true. I dropped a yellow pencil I did not drop a pencil I dropped a non-yellow pencil I dropped a pencil

5. Presuppositions vs. entailments Some utterances have a presupposition. Some utterances have a presupposition. He had stopped stealing office supplies. He had stopped stealing office supplies. He used to steal office supplies. He used to steal office supplies. My dog ate my homework. My dog ate my homework. I have a dog, and I have (er, had) homework. I have a dog, and I have (er, had) homework. This similar, but distinct from, entailment. This similar, but distinct from, entailment. The emperor was assassinated. The emperor was assassinated. Someone was assassinated. Someone was assassinated. The emperor died. The emperor died. In both cases if the first is true, the other(s) is/are true. In both cases if the first is true, the other(s) is/are true.

6. Presuppositions vs. entailments Presuppositions have a different status from entailments. Consider: Presuppositions have a different status from entailments. Consider: He hasn’t stopped stealing office supplies. He hasn’t stopped stealing office supplies. He used to steal office supplies. He used to steal office supplies. My dog didn’t eat my homework. My dog didn’t eat my homework. I have a dog, and I (still, it seems) have homework. I have a dog, and I (still, it seems) have homework. The emperor wasn’t assassinated. The emperor wasn’t assassinated.  Someone was assassinated.  Someone was assassinated.  The emperor died.  The emperor died.

7. Presuppositions vs. entailments If p entails q, q does not follow from  p. If p entails q, q does not follow from  p. If p presupposes q, q still follows from  p. If p presupposes q, q still follows from  p. That is, the presupposition of an utterance is taken as part of an “assumed background” that is not affected by the truth/falsity of the asserted proposition. That is, the presupposition of an utterance is taken as part of an “assumed background” that is not affected by the truth/falsity of the asserted proposition. Have you stopped stealing office supplies? Have you stopped stealing office supplies?

8. Presupposition failure So, what happens if the presupposition isn’t met? So, what happens if the presupposition isn’t met? My great-granddaughter is boisterous. My great-granddaughter is boisterous. The King of France is bald. The King of France is bald. The Queen of America sang the international anthem. The Queen of America sang the international anthem. These don’t seem really to be true or false— they just seem like presupposition failures. A truth value gap. These don’t seem really to be true or false— they just seem like presupposition failures. A truth value gap.

9. Accommodation Presupposition failure does not always (even often) cause communication breakdown, however. Presupposition failure does not always (even often) cause communication breakdown, however. My dog ate my homework. My dog ate my homework. I have a dog, and I have (er, had) homework. I have a dog, and I have (er, had) homework. If the presupposition (I have a dog) is relatively unobjectionable, it is accommodated, or taken to be true as well. If the presupposition (I have a dog) is relatively unobjectionable, it is accommodated, or taken to be true as well.

10. Accommodation: Denied She cried before she finished her thesis. She cried before she finished her thesis. And gave up (she never did finish). And gave up (she never did finish). But she persevered (indeed, she finished). But she persevered (indeed, she finished). She died before she finished her thesis. She died before she finished her thesis. And so the thesis never got done. And so the thesis never got done. But with the help of John Edward, she finished it anyway. But with the help of John Edward, she finished it anyway. Clarification: John Edward  John Edwards  Clarification: John Edward  John Edwards 

11. Implicatures There is a weaker relation that sometimes holds between a proposition p and a related proposition q as well. An implicature. There is a weaker relation that sometimes holds between a proposition p and a related proposition q as well. An implicature. Pat used to smoke. (Pat does not now smoke.) Pat used to smoke. (Pat does not now smoke.) And in fact, Pat still does / But now, Pat no longer does. And in fact, Pat still does / But now, Pat no longer does. In general, an implicated proposition can be defeated or reinforced, whereas an implied/entailed proposition cannot. In general, an implicated proposition can be defeated or reinforced, whereas an implied/entailed proposition cannot. Fido is a dog. (Fido is an animal) Fido is a dog. (Fido is an animal) #But, Fido is not an animal / #And in fact, Fido is an animal. #But, Fido is not an animal / #And in fact, Fido is an animal. An implicature does not follow logically, but rather seems to follow “usually.” An implicature does not follow logically, but rather seems to follow “usually.”

12. Implicatures Why does Pat used to smoke implicate Pat no longer smokes? It isn’t an entailment or presupposition—it need not hold logically, rather it seems to “usually” hold. Why does Pat used to smoke implicate Pat no longer smokes? It isn’t an entailment or presupposition—it need not hold logically, rather it seems to “usually” hold. It depends on what we’re talking about, really. It depends on what we’re talking about, really. I remember back in the old days. Remember Pat? I wonder what happened to Pat… I remember back in the old days. Remember Pat? I wonder what happened to Pat… You know what I just heard about Pat? You won’t believe this, knowing him now… You know what I just heard about Pat? You won’t believe this, knowing him now…

13. Implicatures The answer seems to be that we consider why someone would say Pat used to smoke. The answer seems to be that we consider why someone would say Pat used to smoke. We assume (among other things) that the speaker is saying the most informative (strongest) statement s/he can, while still saying something that is true (as far as s/he knows). We assume (among other things) that the speaker is saying the most informative (strongest) statement s/he can, while still saying something that is true (as far as s/he knows). If Pat smokes now, then (probably) Pat used to smoke too, (at some point). So, saying Pat smokes now and Pat used to smoke too is effectively the same as just saying Pat smokes now. On the other hand, saying Pat used to smoke doesn’t say whether Pat smokes now—it is a weaker statement. If Pat smokes now, then (probably) Pat used to smoke too, (at some point). So, saying Pat smokes now and Pat used to smoke too is effectively the same as just saying Pat smokes now. On the other hand, saying Pat used to smoke doesn’t say whether Pat smokes now—it is a weaker statement. If the speaker knows that Pat smokes now, s/he would have said Pat smokes. The fact that s/he didn’t suggests that s/he would not be speaking truthfully if she said Pat smokes. So, Pat must not smoke now. (Cf. Reminiscing about the past, where now is not at issue.) If the speaker knows that Pat smokes now, s/he would have said Pat smokes. The fact that s/he didn’t suggests that s/he would not be speaking truthfully if she said Pat smokes. So, Pat must not smoke now. (Cf. Reminiscing about the past, where now is not at issue.)

14. Conversational implicature Paul Grice: Inferences can be predicted by adopting a cooperative principle. Paul Grice: Inferences can be predicted by adopting a cooperative principle. The idea is that we can draw conclusions based on what is said in addition to making the assumption that the speaker is participating cooperatively. The idea is that we can draw conclusions based on what is said in addition to making the assumption that the speaker is participating cooperatively. How is Charles getting on in his job? How is Charles getting on in his job? Oh quite well, I think. He likes his colleagues, and he hasn’t been to prison yet. Oh quite well, I think. He likes his colleagues, and he hasn’t been to prison yet. Grice identified several aspects of this cooperation, which he called maxims. Grice identified several aspects of this cooperation, which he called maxims.

15. Gricean maxims Quality: Be truthful. Quality: Be truthful. Do not say what you believe is false. Do not say what you believe is false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Quantity: Be informative. Quantity: Be informative. Make your contribution as informative as required. Make your contribution as informative as required. Do not make your contribution more informative than required. Do not make your contribution more informative than required. Relation: Be relevant. Relation: Be relevant. Make your contribution relevant. Make your contribution relevant. Manner: Be perspicuous. Manner: Be perspicuous. Avoid ambiguity, obscurity. Avoid ambiguity, obscurity. Be brief, orderly Be brief, orderly

16. Deriving implicatures Following the maxims: Following the maxims: Pat: Is it raining? Pat: Is it raining? Chris: It might be. Chris: It might be. Pat’s conclusion: Chris doesn’t know. Pat’s conclusion: Chris doesn’t know. Relevance: Make your contribution relevant. Relevance: Make your contribution relevant. Quantity: Be informative. Quantity: Be informative. Quality: Be truthful. Quality: Be truthful. It would be relevant to discuss whether it is raining, and it would be informative to indicate truthfully whether it is or isn’t. But Chris didn’t. Conclusion: Chris can’t, without violating Quality. It would be relevant to discuss whether it is raining, and it would be informative to indicate truthfully whether it is or isn’t. But Chris didn’t. Conclusion: Chris can’t, without violating Quality.

17. Deriving implicatures The dinner was adequate. The dinner was adequate. Conclude: The dinner was not great. Conclude: The dinner was not great. Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as required. Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as required. Quality: Be truthful. Quality: Be truthful. Great dinners are adequate, not vice-versa. It is less informative to say the dinner was adequate than it would have been to say it was great. Quantity would have promoted saying it was great over saying it was adequate, but Quality would keep you from doing so if saying so would require saying something false. Great dinners are adequate, not vice-versa. It is less informative to say the dinner was adequate than it would have been to say it was great. Quantity would have promoted saying it was great over saying it was adequate, but Quality would keep you from doing so if saying so would require saying something false. Tracy has two children. Tracy has two children. Conclude: Tracy does not have more than two children. Conclude: Tracy does not have more than two children. “Scalar implicature” “Scalar implicature”

18. Deriving implicatures Flouting the maxims. Flouting the maxims. You’re a fine friend. You’re a fine friend. —I might win the lottery. —Yeah, and pigs might fly. —I might win the lottery. —Yeah, and pigs might fly. —Want to go for drinks? —What a nice pigeon! —Want to go for drinks? —What a nice pigeon! —So, are we going to see a movie? —Where are we? —So, are we going to see a movie? —Where are we? Mr. Smith is generally punctual. Mr. Smith is generally punctual. —Did you get my homework? —I got a couple of pages with words on them. —Did you get my homework? —I got a couple of pages with words on them.

19. Reinforceability and defeasibility Implicatures are generally defeasible and reinforceable. Implicatures are generally defeasible and reinforceable. The dinner was adequate. The dinner was adequate. In fact, the dinner was great. In fact, the dinner was great. But it was not great. But it was not great. —Is it raining? —It might be. —Is it raining? —It might be. I know but I’m not telling you. I know but I’m not telling you. I have no idea. I have no idea. —I need to buy gas. —There’s a station around the corner. —I need to buy gas. —There’s a station around the corner. But it closed two hours ago and doesn’t sell gas. But it closed two hours ago and doesn’t sell gas. It sells gas and is open. It sells gas and is open.

20. Reinforceability and defeasibility Presuppositions, like entailments, are generally not defeasible or reinforceable. Presuppositions, like entailments, are generally not defeasible or reinforceable. That Pat has stopped smoking is well known. (Pat used to smoke.) That Pat has stopped smoking is well known. (Pat used to smoke.) #In fact, Pat’s never smoked. #Moreover, Pat used to smoke. #In fact, Pat’s never smoked. #Moreover, Pat used to smoke. That Pat hasn’t stopped smoking is well known. That Pat hasn’t stopped smoking is well known. That Pat ate the sandwich is well known. (There is a unique sandwich.) That Pat ate the sandwich is well known. (There is a unique sandwich.) #In fact, there never was a sandwich. #Moreover, there is a unique sandwich. #In fact, there never was a sandwich. #Moreover, there is a unique sandwich. That Pat didn’t eat the sandwich is well known. That Pat didn’t eat the sandwich is well known.

21. Modeling conversation: Knowledge We can use this kind of diagram to characterize what we know, our “knowledge state.” We can use this kind of diagram to characterize what we know, our “knowledge state.” If we know the following two things (to be true)… If we know the following two things (to be true)… Pat is not hungry. Pat is not hungry. Pat is sleepy. Pat is sleepy. …then we have narrowed down the possible worlds in which the actual world must lie. …then we have narrowed down the possible worlds in which the actual world must lie. Pat is hungry Pat is not hungry Pat is not sleepy Pat is hungry Pat is sleepy Pat is not sleepy

22. Assertion We can think of assertion of a proposition as being the communication of an aspect of the speaker’s knowledge state to the hearer. We can think of assertion of a proposition as being the communication of an aspect of the speaker’s knowledge state to the hearer. Here, both believe that Pat is sleepy, and the speaker is asserting that Pat is not hungry (about which the hearer has no prior belief). Here, both believe that Pat is sleepy, and the speaker is asserting that Pat is not hungry (about which the hearer has no prior belief). Pat is not hungry.

23. Modeling conversation A more sophisticated model of conversation (generally attributed to Stalnaker) involves an additional knowledge state: common ground. A more sophisticated model of conversation (generally attributed to Stalnaker) involves an additional knowledge state: common ground. The common ground is a set of shared assumptions between speakers (we might think of this as the presupposed information). The common ground is a set of shared assumptions between speakers (we might think of this as the presupposed information). CG: Pat is either hungry or sleepy (or both). A believes Pat is sleepy but not hungry. B believes Pat is sleepy. CG: Pat is either hungry or sleepy (or both). A believes Pat is sleepy but not hungry. B believes Pat is sleepy.

24. Modeling conversation In this game, the goal is to build up the common ground. In this game, the goal is to build up the common ground. A asserts Pat is not hungry. A asserts Pat is not hungry. B accepts this. B accepts this. Pat is not hungry is added to the common ground. Pat is not hungry is added to the common ground. Pat is not hungry.

25. Modeling conversation So, the way the game works is that A asserts p (which might presuppose q). So, the way the game works is that A asserts p (which might presuppose q). B adds any presupposition q to the CG, then evaluates p, and accepts it if consistent with B’s beliefs, or rejects it if not. B adds any presupposition q to the CG, then evaluates p, and accepts it if consistent with B’s beliefs, or rejects it if not. Pat is not hungry.

26. Modeling conversation In this game, the goal is to build up the common ground. In this game, the goal is to build up the common ground. A asserts Pat is not hungry. A asserts Pat is not hungry. This is counter to B’s beliefs—B challenges this. This is counter to B’s beliefs—B challenges this. Pat is not hungry is not added to the common ground. Pat is not hungry is not added to the common ground. Pat is not hungry.

27. Modeling conversation Presuppositions are acceptable if they are compatible with the common ground. Presuppositions are acceptable if they are compatible with the common ground. A asserts I didn’t realize that Pat is sleepy. A asserts I didn’t realize that Pat is sleepy. Presupposes: Pat is sleepy. This is compatible with the CG. Presupposes: Pat is sleepy. This is compatible with the CG. B accepts this. B accepts this. A did not realize that Pat is sleepy is added to the common ground. A did not realize that Pat is sleepy is added to the common ground. I didn’t realize that Pat is sleepy.

28. Accommodation Something that presupposes something not in the common ground can be added to the common ground (accommodation). Something that presupposes something not in the common ground can be added to the common ground (accommodation). B believes that Pat is sleepy. The CG has that Pat is sleepy. B believes that Pat is sleepy. The CG has that Pat is sleepy. A asserts I didn’t realize that Pat is not hungry. A asserts I didn’t realize that Pat is not hungry. Presupposes: Pat is not hungry. This is not in the CG, but isn’t contrary to it. Presupposes: Pat is not hungry. This is not in the CG, but isn’t contrary to it. B adds the presupposition to the CG, and accepts it. B adds the presupposition to the CG, and accepts it. I didn’t realize that Pat is not hungry.

29. Presupposition failure Something that presupposes something contrary to the common ground results in presupposition failure. Something that presupposes something contrary to the common ground results in presupposition failure. B believes that Pat is not sleepy. The CG has that Pat is sleepy. B believes that Pat is not sleepy. The CG has that Pat is sleepy. A asserts I didn’t realize that Pat is not sleepy. A asserts I didn’t realize that Pat is not sleepy. Presupposes: Pat is not sleepy. This is inconsistent with the CG. Presupposes: Pat is not sleepy. This is inconsistent with the CG. B adds the presupposition to the CG—resulting in contradiction. B cannot either accept or reject. B adds the presupposition to the CG—resulting in contradiction. B cannot either accept or reject. I didn’t realize that Pat is not sleepy. ?!

30. Common ground? How could presupposition failure arise? How could presupposition failure arise? Perhaps A is simply not playing the game, but more likely, what A thinks the CG is differs from what B thinks the CG is. Perhaps A is simply not playing the game, but more likely, what A thinks the CG is differs from what B thinks the CG is. Presupposition failure occurs when the interlocutors’ views of the CG get out of sync. Presupposition failure occurs when the interlocutors’ views of the CG get out of sync. I didn’t realize that Pat is not sleepy. ?!

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