1. Kaplan’s Theory of Indexicals
Introduction to Pragmatics
Elizabeth Coppock
Fall 2010

2. Indexicals
Indexical: A word whose referent is dependent on the context of use, which provides a rule which determines the referent in terms of certain aspects of the context. (Kaplan 1977, Demonstratives, p. 490) Examples: I, my, you, that, this, here, now, tomorrow, yesterday, actual, present

3. Demonstratives
Demonstrative: An indexical that requires an associated demonstration. Examples: this, that Cf. Fillmore’s gestural uses of deictic terms.

4. Pure Indexical
Pure indexical: An indexical for which no demonstration is required. Example: I, now, here, tomorrow. (Although here has a demonstrative use: “In two weeks, I will be here [pointing]”)

5. Two obvious principles
The referent of a pure indexical depends on the context, and the referent of a demonstrative depends on the associated demonstration.
Indexicals, pure and demonstrative alike, are directly referential.

6. Directly referential
An expression is directly referential if its referent, once determined, is taken as fixed for all possible circumstances.
(Like Kripke’s rigid designators)
Proper names (John) are directly referential
Definite descriptions (the man) are not

7. Alternative World 2
Said by me today (in the US):
“The president is a Democrat”
The actual world
false
Alternative World 1
true
true

8. Alternative World 5
Said by me today:
“The president is a Democrat”
Alternative World 3
true
Alternative World 4
true
false

9. Alternative World 2
Said by me today:
“Barack Obama is a Democrat”
The actual world
true
Alternative World 1
true
true

10. Alternative World 5
Said by me today:
“Barack Obama is a Democrat”
Alternative World 3
true
Alternative World 4
true
true

11. Alternative World 2
Said by Barack Obama today:
“I am a Democrat”
The actual world
true
Alternative World 1
true
true

12. Alternative World 5
Said by Barack Obama today:
“I am a Democrat”
Alternative World 3
true
Alternative World 4
true
true

13. Conclusion
“Barack Obama” designates the same individual in every possible world; it is directly referential.
“The president” can designate different individuals in different possible worlds.
When Barack Obama says “I”, he means “Barack Obama”. “I” is directly referential too.

14. (Complication)
There are so-called descriptive uses of indexicals. Says a prisoner on death row (Nunberg): I am traditionally allowed a last meal. [“I” – a person on death row.] But nevermind that. Ignore this slide.

15. Recall: Directly referential
An expression is directly referential if its referent, once determined, is taken as fixed for all possible circumstances. Kaplan continues: This does not mean it could not have been used to designate a different object; in a different context, it might have. But regardless of the circumstance of evaluation, it picks out the same object.

16. Context vs. Circumstance
Context of utterance: Who is speaking to whom, where, when, what they’re gesturing to, etc. Circumstance of evaluation: A possible world at which the truth of the utterance might be evaluated.

17. Alternative World 5
“I am a Democrat”
Actual World
Context:
Speaker=Obama: true
Speaker=McCain: true
Context:
Speaker=Obama: true
Speaker=McCain: false

18. Direct Reference
The word “I”, uttered by Barack Obama (or whoever), picks out the same individual in every possible world.
You don’t have to look to see what properties the object has in the world in order to decide what it refers to.
Unlike definite descriptions, whose referent depends on who is the president.
The only thing that can affect what “I” refers to is who the speaker is.

19. Indexicals and Descriptive Content
Descriptions like “the president” and “a president” do have descriptive content: they describe the discourse referent as a president.
Proper names have no descriptive content. (What’s in a name?...)
Do indexicals have descriptive content?
Sure. “I” describes the referent as being the speaker.
But “the descriptive meaning of a directly referential term is no part of the propositional content” (p. 497)

20. Content vs. Character
Character: The aspect of meaning that two utterances of the same sentence share across different contexts of utterance. Content: The proposition expressed by an utterance, with the referents of all of the indexicals resolved.

21. Same or different meaning?
May 11, 2010:
May 12, 2010:
I am turning 30 today.
I am turning 30 today.

22. Same or different meaning?
May 11, 2010:
May 12, 2010:
I am turning 30 today.
I turned 30 yesterday.

23. Same character, different content
May 11, 2010:
May 12, 2010:
I am turning 30 today.
I am turning 30 today.

24. Same content, different character
May 11, 2010:
May 12, 2010:
I am turning 30 today.
I turned 30 yesterday.

25. Indexicals and Descriptive Content
“Indexicals have descriptive meaning, but this meaning is relevant only to determining a referent in a context of use and not to determining a relevant individual in a circumstance of evaluation.” I.e., the descriptive meaning is part of the character, but not the content.

26. Imagine if it were otherwise!
Suppose “I do not exist” is true in a circumstance of evaluation if and only if the speaker (assuming there is one) of the circumstance does not exist in the circumstance. Nonsense! If that were the correct analysis, what I said could not be true. From which it follows that: It is impossible that I do not exist.

27. Impossibility
Something that is possible is true in at least one possible world.
Something that is impossible is false at every possible world.
Something that is necessary is true at every possible world.

28. Alternative World 8
The actual world
Alternative World 7

29. “I am here now”
Kaplan calls this a logical truth meaning that whenever it is uttered, it is true.
But it is never a necessary truth because the circumstances could be otherwise.