Comp 1001 Introduction to Information Technology & Computer Architecture Wednesday 12-1Dr. Joe Carthy http://www.cs.ucd.ie/staff/jcarthy/home/

Comp 1001 Introduction to Information Technology & Computer Architecture Wednesday 12-1Dr. Joe Carthy

Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy
Course Outline Introduction to Information Technology Hardware and Software I/O and Storage devices CPU RAM Information Representation: ASCII codes Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers Computer Networks Operating Systems Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Course Outline Continued
Computer Architecture and Assembly Language CPU structure Introduction to Assembly Language (8086) Instruction Set Basic Assembly Language Programs Fetch-Execute Cycle Pipelining Memory: RAM access and Cache Memory Computer performance evaluation Practicals Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Course Outcomes At the end of this course
Students should have a grasp of functional components of a computer system information representation assembly language instructions instruction execution CPU structure and functioning knowledge of performance evaluation Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Recommended Texts Recommended Texts: Computers (Tools for the Information Age), Brief Edition, H.L. Capron, Prentice Hall Introduction to Assembly Language Programming and Computer Architecture, J. Carthy, ITP Web Notes Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Simple Model of a Computer System
Hardware Physical components that make up a computer system System: interconnected set of devices that function as a unit Software Computer programs that allow you use a computer Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Simple Model of a Computer System Version 1
Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Simple Model of a Computer System Version 2

System Devices Classified as: Storage devices: store information RAM Disk CD/DVD Input/Output (I/O) devices: carry info to/from Computer Monitor (screen) Printer Mouse/Keyboard Speakers Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Review Questions What is a computer system ? Explain the difference between hardware and software What are the two major device classes ? What is a peripheral device ? What is the function of the processor ? What is the function of memory (RAM) ? What are the major devices ? What is a bus ? Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Information Representation
How is “information” represented in a computer system ? What are the different types of information Text Numbers Images Video Photographic Audio Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Everything is in Binary ! (1’s and 0’s)
Computers are digital devices - they can only manipulate information in digital (binary) form. Easy to represent 1 and 0 in electronic, magnetic and optical devices Only need two states High/low On/off Up/down etc All information in a computer system is Processed in binary form Stored in binary form Transmitted in binary form Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

How is information converted to Binary form
I/O and Storage Devices are digital I/O devices convert information to/from binary A keyboard converts the character “A” you type into a binary code to represent “A” E.g. “A” is represented by the binary code Monitor converts to the “A” that you read Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Bits and Bytes One binary digit i.e. 1 or 0 is called a bit A group of 8 bits is one byte Byte is the unit of storage measurement Number of Bytes Unit 1024 bytes (210 bytes) 1 Kilobyte (Kb) 1024 Kb (220 bytes) 1 Megabyte (Mb) 1024 Mb (230 bytes) 1 Gigabyte (Gb) 1024 Gb (240 bytes) 1 Terabyte (Tb) 1024 Tb (250 bytes) 1 Petabyte (Pb) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Representing Text- ASCII Code
Textual information is made up of individual characters e.g. Letters: Lowercase: a,b,c,..z Uppercase: A,B,C..Z Digits: 0,1,2,..9 Punctuation characters: ., :, ; ,, “, ’ Other symbols: -, +, &, %, #, /,\,£, etc.). Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Representing Text- ASCII Code
Each character is represented by a unique binary code. ASCII is one international standard that specifies the binary code for each character. American Standard Code for Information Interchange It is a 7-bit code - every character is represented by 7 bits There are other standards such as EBCDIC but these are not widely used. ASCII is being superceded by Unicode of which ASCII is a subset. Unicode is a 16-bit code. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Sample ASCII Codes Char ASCII Decimal NUL 00 BEL 07 LF 10 CR 13 48 SP 20 1 49 ! 21 2 50 “ 22 9 57 A 65 a 97 B 66 b 98 C 67 c 99 Y 89 y 121 Z 90 z 122 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Comments on ASCII Codes
Codes for A to Z and a to z form collating sequences A is 65, B is 66, C is 67 and so on A is 97, b is 98, c is 99 and so on Lowercase code is 32 greater than Uppercase equivalent Note that digit ‘0’ is not the same as number 0 ASCII is used for characters Not used to represent numbers (See later) Codes 0 to 30 are typically for Control Characters Bel - causes speaker to beep ! Carriage Return (CR); LineFeed (LF) Others used to control communication between devices SYN, ACK, NAK, DLE etc Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Review All information stored/transmitted in binary Devices convert to/from binary to other forms that humans understand Bits and Bytes Kb, Mb, Gb, Tb and Pb are storage metrics ASCII code is a 7-bit code to represent text characters Text “numbers” not the same as “maths” numbers Do not add phone numbers or get average of PPS numbers ! Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Review Questions How is information transmitted inside a computer Why do we use binary in computers What is an ASCII code used for How big is an ASCII code What is the ASCII code for: A, ‘0’, ‘a’ What is a collating sequence What is a control character - give an example What is Unicode and why is it used What is a bit ? A byte ? How many bytes in: Kb, Mb, Gb, Tb, Pb Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Representing Numbers: Integers
Humans use Decimal Number System Computers use Binary Number System Important to understand Decimal system before looking at binary system Decimal Numbers - Base 10 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Positional number system: the position of a digit in a number determines its value Take the number 1649 The 1 is worth 1000 The 9 is worth 9 units Formally, the digits in a decimal number are weighted by increasing powers of 10 i.e. they use the base 10. We can write 1649 in the following form: 1* * * *100 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Representing Numbers: Integers
weighting: Digits 1649 = 1* * * *100 Least Significant Digit: rightmost one - 9 above Lowest power of 10 weighting Digits on the right hand side are called the low-order digits (lower powers of 10). Most Significant Digit: leftmost one - 1 above Highest power of 10 weighting The digits on the left hand side are called the high-order digits (higher powers of 10) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Representing Numbers: Decimal Numbers
Largest n-digit number ? Made up of n consecutive 9’s (= 10n -1 ) Largest 4-digit number if 9999 9999 is Distinguishing Decimal from other number systems such as Binary, Hexadecimal (base 16) and Octal (base 8) How do we know whether the number 111 is decimal or binary One convention is to use subscripts Decimal: Binary:1112 Hex: Octal: 1118 Difficult to write use keyboard Another convention is to append a letter (D, B, H, O) Decimal: 111D Binary:111B Hex: 111H Octal: 111O Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Representing Numbers: Binary Numbers
Binary numbers are Base 2 numbers Only 2 digits: 0 and 1 Formally, the digits in a binary number are weighted by increasing powers of 2 They operate as decimal numbers do in all other respects Consider the binary number Weight bits = 0*27 + 1*26 + 0*25 + 1*24 + 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 0*20 = = 9210 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Leftmost bit is the most significant bit (MSB). The leftmost bits in a binary number are referred to as the high-order bits. Rightmost bit is the least significant bit (LSB). The rightmost bits in a binary number are referred to as the low-order bits. Largest n-bit binary number ? Made up of n consecutive 1’s (= 2n -1) e.g. largest 4-bit number: 1111 = = 15 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Exercises Convert the following binary numbers to decimal: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Joe Carthy Formatting Convention In these notes we insert a space after every 4 bits to make the numbers easier to read Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Representing Numbers: Converting Decimal to Binary
To convert from one number base to another: you repeatedly divide the number to be converted by the new base the remainder of the division at each stage becomes a digit in the new base until the result of the division is 0. Example: To convert decimal 35 to binary we do the following: Remainder 35 / 2 1 17 / 2 1 8 / 2 0 4 / 2 0 2 / 2 0 1 / 2 1 The result is read upwards giving 3510 = Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Exercise: Convert the following decimal numbers to binary (1) 64 (2) 65 (3) 32 (4) 16 (5) 48 Shortcuts To convert any decimal number which is a power of 2, to binary, simply write 1 followed by the number of zeros given by the power of 2. For example, 32 is 25, so we write it as 1 followed by 5 zeros, i.e ; 128 is 27 so we write it as 1 followed by 7 zeros, i.e Remember that the largest binary number that can be stored in a given number of bits is made up of n 1’s. An easy way to convert this to decimal, is to note that this is the same as 2n - 1. For example, if we are using 4-bit numbers, the largest value we can represent is 1111 which is 24-1, i.e. 15 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Binary Numbers that you should remember because they occur so frequently Binary Decimal 111 7 1111 15 127 255 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Review Decimal Number System - Base 10 Significant Digits Binary Number System - Base 2 Notation (B,D,H,O) Binary to Decimal Decimal to Binary Shortcuts and Common Binary Numbers Review Questions What is a positional number system ? What is the MSB and the LSB. Give an example of each one. Show how the weights of the bits in an 8-bit binary number 16-bit binary numbe What is the weight of the MSB in (a) 8-bit number (b) 16-bit number (c) 32-bit number Convert 48D, 65D, 31D, 15D to binary Convert B, B and B to decimal Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Hexadecimal Number System
Base-16 number System 16 digits: 0, 1, 2, .., 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. We use the letters A to F to represent numbers 10 to 15 using a single symbol A = 10; B = 11; C = 12; D = 13; E = 14; F = 15; Use H at right hand side to indicate Hexadecimal Used because binary numbers are very long and so are error prone Easy to convert between hexadecimal and binary than between decimal and binary Example: Convert 2FAH to decimal weighting: digits F A 2FA = 2 * F * A * 160 = 2 * * * 160 = = 50610 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Example 2: Convert FFFH to decimal weighting: digits F F F 2FA = F * F * F * 160 = 15 * * * 160 = = Example 3: Convert 65D to Hexadecimal 65 / 16 = 4 Remainder 1 4 / 16 = 0 Remainder 4 65D = 41H Exercise: Convert 97D, 48D, 255D to Hexadecimal Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Hexadecimal to Binary Convert each Hex digit to a 4-bit binary number Example: 7FAH 7 F A 7FA = B Exercise: Convert FFH, FEH, BBH to binary Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Binary to Hexadecimal Break binary numbers into groups of 4-bits from right hand side Pad with 0’s on left if necessary Convert each group of 4-bits to its equivalent Hex digit Example 1: B Decimal Hex F B B = F3BH Exercise: Convert B; B and B to Hexadecimal Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Signed Numbers How do we represent negative numbers ? Humans use a symbol to indicate number sign: “-” or “+” In computer we only have binary: 1’s and 0’s . Two common methods for representing signed numbers Signed Magnitude Two’s Complement (2’s Complement) In the following assume we are working with 8-bit numbers We designate the leftmost bit i.e the MSB as a sign bit The sign bit indicates whether a number is positive or negative 0 sign bit => positive number 1 sign bit => negative number The remaining bits give the magnitude of the number Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Signed Numbers Example +15 and -15 as 8-bit numbers +15 => B MSB = 0 => + -15 => B MSB = 1 => - Note the magnitude is comprised of 7 bits Largest positive number is => +127 Largest negative number is => -127 Two representations of zero ! and Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Signed Numbers: 2’s Complement
In a complementary number system each number has a unique representation. Two’s complement is a complementary number system used in computers It is the most commonly used method for representing signed numbers Uses only one representation of zero: Uses a sign bit as for signed magnitude 0 sign bit => positive number 1 sign bit => negative number In the case of positive numbers, the representation is identical to that of signed magnitude, the sign bit is 0 and the remaining bits represent the positive number. In the case of negative numbers, the sign bit is 1 but the bits to the right of the sign bit do not directly indicate the magnitude of the number. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

In negative numbers the sign bit carries a negative weight while all other bits carry a positive weight e.g. the 2’s complement number B is weighted as follows Bits Weights Value = *1 + 1*1 = = -125D So B = -125D Exercise: Convert the 2’s complement numbers B and B to decimal. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Example 2: The 2’s complement number B Bits Weights Value = _+1 = = -1D In 2’s complement each number has a unique representation i.e. the negative representation of a number uses a completely different bit pattern than its positive counterpart. In any number system: +x - x = 0 Example: = 0 In 2’s complement: B B B Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

2’s Complement Arithmetic In 2’s Complement, we do not need subtraction to compute x - y We simply add -y to x to get the result. This makes it easier to design the hardware to implement 2’s arithmetic It much more complicated with signed magnitude e.g to compute we must always subtract the smaller number from the larger one and then take the sign of the larger number. Quick Conversion to/from 2’s Complement Use the rule: Flip the bits and Add 1 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Quick Conversion to/from 2’s Complement Use the rule: Flip the bits and Add 1 Example 1 Convert 2’s complement number B to decimal Step 1: Flip the bits: Change 1’s to 0’s and change all 0’s to 1’s (complement of 1 is 0; complement of 0 is 1) B => B Step 2: Add 1 B + 1B => B => 1D Remember the sign bit was 1 => negative So B => -1D Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Example 2: Convert -1D to 2’s complement First convert 1D to binary => B Step 1: Flip the bits B => B Step 2: Add 1 B + 1B => B => -1D => B Exercise: Convert the following 2’s complement numbers to decimal: ; ; ; Decimal to 2’s complement: -128 ; -65; -2 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

B (i.e. -128) is the largest negative 8-bit 2’s complement number (127) is the largest positive 8-bit 2’s complement number 256 numbers can be represented using 8-bit two’s complement numbers from -128 to 127. There is only one representation for zero. The table below lists the decimal equivalents of some 8-bit 2’s complement and unsigned binary numbers. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Number Range and Overflow
The range of numbers (called the number range) that can be stored in a given number of bits is important. Given an 8-bit number, we can represent unsigned numbers in the range 0 to 255 (0 to 28-1) and two’s complement numbers in the range -128 to +127 (-27 to 27). Given a 16-bit number, we can represent unsigned numbers in the range 0 to 65,535 (0 to ) and two’s complement numbers in the range to (-215 to 215-1). In general given an n-bit number, we can represent unsigned numbers in the range 0 to 2n -1 and two’s complement numbers in the range -2n-1 to 2n-1 -1 Exercise: What is the number range of 4-bit, 10-bit, 20-bit, 30-bit and 32-bit numbers ? Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Number Range and Overflow
The magnitude of an unsigned number doubles for every bit added 10 bits can represent 1024 numbers (1K) 11 bits => 2048 numbers (2K) 12 bits => 4096 numbers (4K) …. 16 bits => 64K numbers .. 20 bits => 220 => 1 Mb 21 bits => 2 Mb 24 bit => 16Mb 30 bits => 230 => 1 Gb 31 bits => 2Gb 32 bits => 4 Gb Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Number of bits in Memory Address
The maximum amount of memory that a processor can access is determined by the number of bits that the processor uses to represent a memory address. This determines the maximum memory address that can be accessed i.e. is a limit on the maximum amount of RAM a computer can use For example, a processor that uses 16-bit addresses will only be able to access up to 65,536 memory locations (64Kb), with addresses from 0 to 65,535. A 20-bit address allows up to 220 (1Mb) memory locations to be accessed A 24-bit address allows up to 16Mb (224 bytes) of RAM to be accessed A 30-bit address allows up to 1Gb (230 bytes) of RAM to be accessed A 32-bit address allows up to 4Gb (232 bytes) of RAM to be accessed Most PCs now use 32-bit addresses. Original PC (1981) used 20-bit addresses. Early Macintoshs used 24-bit addresses. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Review Hexadecimal: 16 digits: 0 to 9 and A to F. Easy to convert to binary Signed Numbers: Signed Magnitude and 2’s Complement Sign bit: MSB 1 => negative 2 Complement: Flip the bits and add 1. Number range is important Given an n-bit number, we can represent unsigned numbers in the range 0 to 2n -1 and two’s complement numbers in the range -2n-1 to 2n-1 -1. A 20-bit address allows up to 220 (1Mb) memory locations to be accessed A 30-bit address allows up to 1Gb (230 bytes) of RAM to be accessed A 32-bit address allows up to 1Gb (230 bytes) of RAM to be accessed Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Overflow What happens if we attempt to store a larger unsigned value than 255 in 8-bits? For example, if we attempt the calculation using 8-bit two’s complement numbers, the result of 145 ( B) is a negative number in 2's complement! This situation, when it arises is called overflow. It occurs when we attempt to represent a number outside the range of numbers that can be stored in a number of bits. Overflow is detected by the hardware of the CPU. This allows the programmer to test for this condition in an assembly language program and deal with it appropriately. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Overflow The figure below illustrates the relationship between number range and overflow for 8-bit two’s complement numbers. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Exercises Convert the following two’s complement numbers to decimal: FFFFh ; F000h; 1000h; 1001h What is the range of unsigned numbers that can be represented by 20-bit, 24-bit and 32-bit numbers? What is the range of numbers that can be represented using 32-bit two’s complement numbers? What problem arises in representing zero in signed magnitude? What is overflow and how might it occur? Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Note: What does a bit-pattern represent ?
How can we tell by looking at a number whether it is a two’s complement number or an unsigned number. Does B represent the decimal number 255 or the number -1? The answer is that we cannot tell by looking at a number, how it should be interpreted. It is the responsibility of the programmer to use the number correctly. It is important to remember that you can never tell how any byte or longer bit-pattern is to be interpreted by looking at its value alone. It could represent a signed or unsigned number, an ASCII code, a machine code instruction and so on. The context (in which the information stored in the byte is used) will determine how it is to be interpreted. Assembly languages provide separate instructions for handling comparisons involving unsigned or signed numbers. It is the programmers responsibility to use the correct instructions. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Real Numbers: Floating Point Numbers
A different representation is used for real (usually called floating-point) numbers. We can write such numbers in scientific notation Example: The number can be written as x 103. We can express any floating-point number as: ± m x rexp where m is the mantissa, r is the radix and exp is the exponent. For decimal numbers the radix is 10 and for binary numbers the radix is 2. Since we use binary numbers in a computer system, we do not have to store the radix explicitly when representing floating-point numbers. This means that we only need to store the mantissa and the exponent of the number to be represented. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

For the number x 23 only the values (mantissa) and 3 (exponent converted to binary) need to be stored. The binary point and radix are implicit. A floating-point number is normalised if the most significant digit of the mantissa is non-zero as in the above example. Any floating-point number can be normalised by adjusting the exponent appropriately. For example, is normalised to x 2-3. To represent 0, as a floating-point number, both the mantissa and the exponent are represented as zero. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

There are various standards (IEEE, ANSI etc.) that define how the mantissa and exponent of a floating-point number should be stored. Most standards use a 32-bit format for storing single precision floating-point numbers and a 64-bit format for storing double precision floating-point numbers. A possible format for a 32-bit floating-point number uses a sign bit, 23 bits to represent the mantissa and the remaining 8 bits to represent the exponent. The mantissa could be represented using either signed magnitude or 2’s complement. The exponent could be in 2’s complement (but another form called excess notation is also used). Thus a 32-bit floating-point number could be represented as follows, where S is the sign bit: . Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Real Numbers: Floating Point Numbers General Format and example: x 26 Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Number Representation in Java
Keyword Description Size/Format Integers byte Byte-length integer 8-bit two's complement short Short integer 16-bit two's complement int Integer bit two's complement long Long integer 64-bit two's complement Real numbers float Single-precision floating point 32-bit IEEE 754 double Double-precision floating point 64-bit IEEE 754 Other types char A single character 16-bit Unicode character boolean A boolean value (true or false) true or false . Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Number Representation in Java
Range Integers byte to (27) to 27-1 short -32,768 to 32, (215) to 215-1 int -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483, (232) to 232-1 long -9,223,372,036,854,775, (264) to to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 Real numbers float +/ * to +/ * 238 double +/ * to +/ * 2308 . Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Why use small variables (byte, short) ?
Programmers use “small” variable types to save memory usage Your program occupies memory space. Each variable used occupies one or more storage locations. By using byte and short you decrease the amount of RAM required But modern PCs have hundreds of megabytes of RAM - so who cares about the few bytes you can save ? For PC applications these savings are usually of no consequence BUT most processors are NOT used in computers ! They are embedded in other equipment: phones, stereos, washing machines, microwaves etc. Usually these processors have very limited amounts of RAM. Called micro-controllers This is where it is important to write programs that are as small as possible and so to use the most efficient variable types. . Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Review Floating point numbers are represented in scientific notation In binary: ± m x 2exp There are different standards for representing floating point numbers There are different precisions: single and double Languages like Java and C allow you specify the type of number Micro-controllers are embedded processors with some RAM Code for micro-controller needs to be designed to use as little RAM as possible. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Information Representation: Audio - Sound
Sound waves are analog signals Analog signal: continuous signal between a maximum and minimum value Digital Signal: Only two possible values: 1 OR 0 (High/Low etc) Microphone converts sound to analog electrical signal Loudspeaker converts analog electrical signal to sound we can hear How can we represent an analog signal in digital form i.e. how do we represent the analog signal as a sequence of bits ? Conversely, how do we convert digital signal back to its original analog form Use devices called digital-to-analog (DAC) and analog-to-digital (ADC) converters Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

ADC samples the value of the electrical signal at regular intervals such as 8000 times per second - sampling rate ADC represents each sample as a binary number. These numbers are then stored or transmitted. DAC takes these samples and recreates an analog signal that “matches” the samples. This re-created signal will NOT be identical to the original BUT may be close enough that the human ear cannot tell the difference The sample may typically be represented by an 8-bit number or a 16-bit number (8-bit sampling/16-bit sampling) - sampling precision The following examples come from HowStuffWorks website - well worth a visit Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Analog signal Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Sampled signal (1000 samples per sec and 10 gradations per sample) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Re-created signal in blue (with sharp angles): note there is an error Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

More accurate if we increase sampling rate and precision (2000/sec and 20) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

More accurate if we increase sampling rate and precision (4000/sec & 40) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

CD Recording In the case of CDs, the sampling rate is 44,100 samples per second with 16-bit samples The number of gradations is 65,536 (216) At this level, the output of the DAC so closely matches the original waveform that the sound is essentially "perfect" to most human ears but musical purists hotly debate this contention!! CD Storage Capacity CDs are designed for two sound streams to be recorded (one for each of the speakers on a stereo system). A CD can store up to 74 minutes of music, so the total amount of digital data that must be stored on a CD is: 44,100 samples/(channel*second) * 2 bytes/sample * 2 channels * 74 minutes * 60 seconds/minute = 783,216,000 bytes Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Audio Representation: - Review
Sound - analog signal Microphone converts to electrical signal which is converted to digital signal by ADC DAC converts digital signal to analog signal which is converted back to sound by loudspeaker Sampling rate: number of samples per second that ADC uses - higher is better Precision: number of bits per sample - more is better Exercises Explain using diagrams how sound is represented digitally What is sampling rate and why is higher sampling rate better What is precision and why is higher precision better What precision is used with CDs Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Image Representation See: Traditional photographic image is represented by analog A digital image is simply a sequence of 1s and 0s that represent tiny colored dots These dots are called picture elements or pixels and they make up the image. You can convert an image to its digital form by using a digital scanner which records light reflected from the image as binary numbers or pixel values You can also use a digital camera which samples the light reflected from the subject and stores it in pixel form A single image will typically consist of millions of pixels (megapixels) Cameras are rated according to the maximum number of pixels the camera is capable of using to represent an image - called the resolution of the camera The higher the number of pixels the better the image quality e.g. 3.2 megapixels is used by some cameras Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Image Representation The key difference between a digital camera and a film-based camera is that the digital camera has no film. Instead, it has a sensor that converts light into electrical charges -> pixels Some typical resolutions that you find in digital cameras today include: 256x256 pixels - You find this resolution on very cheap cameras. This resolution is so low that the picture quality is almost always unacceptable. This is 65,000 total pixels. 640x480 pixels - This is the low end on most "real" cameras. This resolution is great if you plan to most of your pictures to friends or post them on a Web site. This is 307,000 total pixels. 1216x912 pixels - If you are planning to print your images, this is a good resolution. This is a "megapixel" image size -- 1,109,000 total pixels. 1600x1200 pixels - This is "high resolution." Images taken with this resolution can be printed in larger sizes, such as 8x10 inches, with good results. This is almost 2 million total pixels. You can find cameras today with up to 10.2 million pixels. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Image Representation Resolution for Web and You may or may not need lots of resolution, depending on what you want to do with your pictures. If you are planning to do nothing more than display images on a Web page or send them in , then using 640x480 resolution has several advantages: Your camera's memory will hold more images at this low resolution than at higher resolutions. It will take less time to move the images from the camera to your computer. The images will take up less space on your computer. On the other hand, if your goal is to print large images, you need to take high-resolution shots and need a camera with lots of pixels. JPEG compression reduces size by a factor of 16 if used Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Image Representation Resolution: Printing Pictures There are many different technologies used in printers. In general, printer manufacturers will advertise the printer resolution in dots per inch (dpi). . The rule of thumb is that you divide your printer's color resolution by about four to get the actual maximum picture quality of your printer. So for a 1200 dpi printer, a resolution of 300 pixels per inch would be just about the best quality that printer is capable of. This means that with a 1200x900 pixel image, you could print a 4-inch by 3-inch print. In practice, though, lower resolutions than this usually provide adequate quality. To make a reasonable print that comes close to the quality of a traditionally developed photograph, you need about 150 to 200 pixels per inch of print size. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Image Representation Kodak recommends the following as minimum resolutions for different print sizes Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Image Representation: Video
Video may be regarded as sequences of still images and essentially the same techniques are used to represent the images as for photographic images. In addition the sound is stored separately, again , in the same fashion as for CDs. Compression becomes an important issue for video because of the huge volume of data involved. A set of standards called MPEG (-1,-2,-3, -4) is used for compressing video Raw video generates approx. 170Mbps e.g. 10 second video clip uses over 200Mb Can reduce this to 100Kbps by using MPEG e.g 10 second clip takes 125Kb MPEG makes it feasible to easily store and transmit video Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Image Representation: Review
Images are represented using pixels Resolution refers to number of pixels per image Need Megapixel resolution for print quality large images Compression is important: JPEG Video: sequence of still images MPEG compression Exercises How are images represented ? What are pixels ? What is resolution ? Why is high resolution needed in some cases ? What cases ? Why is compression important ? Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Information Representation: Summary
All Information is stored and transmitted in digital form in a computer system Text is typically represented by ASCII or Unicode binary codes Integers are typically represented as pure binary or 2’s complement binary numbers Real numbers are represented in scientific notation form in binary Audio is converted to digital (binary) by ADC and from binary to analog by DAC Images are represented by pixels which are represented by binary numbers Video can be regarded as a combination of Image and Audio representations Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices Review: Bits and Bytes One binary digit i.e. 1 or 0 is called a bit A group of 8 bits is one byte Byte is the unit of storage measurement Number of Bytes Unit 1024 bytes (210 bytes) 1 Kilobyte (Kb) 1024 Kb (220 bytes) 1 Megabyte (Mb) 1024 Mb (230 bytes) 1 Gigabyte (Gb) 1024 Gb (240 bytes) 1 Terabyte (Tb) 1024 Tb (250 bytes) 1 Petabyte (Pb) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices Storage devices are may be classified as Short-term (volatile) or Long-term (permanent) Short-term RAM (Main Memory) Loses contents on power off Capacity: n Megabytes (2004: n = for PCs) 100,000 times faster than disk ! e.g hours is 100,000 times longer than 1 second Much more expensive than other storage devices Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices Long Term (Secondary/Auxiliary) Information stored for years No power required to store information Disk: Magnetic medium Random access storage medium Hard Disk Internal External (Removable) Capacity : n Gigabytes (n = 30 to 100+ Gb for PCs) Floppy Disk: 1.4Mb Zip Disk (100/250/750 Mb) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices RAID Technology: Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks Use collection of independent disks to do same job as a larger disk. Increases availability of data Improves access time Uses either disk mirroring or striping May be hot-swappable Capacity: x00 Gb to Tb range Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices: Optical Technology CD-ROM/CD-R (ROM: Read-Only Memory; CD-R: Recordable) Capacity: 650 Mb CD-R is an example of WORM technology WORM: Write Once/Read Many times Also have rewriteable CDs - more expensive CDs are much slower to access data than magnetic disks Uses laser to read/write digital data on surface of disk Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices: Optical Technology DVD: Digital Versatile Disk Capacity 4.7 Gb (or n times 4.7 Gb where n = .5, 2, 4) At moment - use mainly DVD-ROM Also DVD-RAM (rewriteable DVD) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices: Tape Technology Tapes: Magnetic and Optical Slower to access than Disk Cheaper than disk Sequential storage medium Very good for offline storage Capacity Old: Reel ( <100 Mb) Cartridge: 100Mb to <10 Gb DAT: 4Gb upwards Optical tape: x Terabytes capacity fast access relative to other tapes Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices: Flash Memory Flash memory is a form of non-volatile RAM (NV-RAM) USB “disks” e.g. Disgo are small devices that store from 16 MB to 2 GB in this form of memory Plug into any USB port Most modern PCs and Operating Systems allow you use them without installing additional software (drivers) Much more convenient and reliable than Floppy disks Also much large capacity than floppy disks Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices: Importance of Backups Most important storage principle: Always have a Backup ! It is almost impossible to overstate the importance of this principle Hard disks do and will wear out or breakdown (head crash) They may also be stolen or lost (with your laptop or desktop) Files may be deleted by accident/on purpose CDs and DVDs are very useful for storing a copy of your hard disk data your backup copy. Traditionally tapes have been used as the standard backup medium Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Storage Devices: Review Short and Long-term storage devices RAM: Short-term x00 to low Gigabyte range 100,000 times faster than disk Disk: Long-term, Magnetic medium Widely used X Gb (X = for PCs) CD/DVD: Long-term; Optical medium; Very robust Widely used; Slower than disk CD: 650 Mb DVD: 4.7 Gb upwards Tape: Long-term; Sequential access; Magnetic; Slow; Cheap DAT: 4 Gb upwards Optical: terabyte range NV-RAM devices: Long-term USB : 16 Mb to 2GB Always have a Backup Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Input / Output (I/O) Devices Data Entry Input Devices Keyboard - QWERTY function keys numeric keypad Pointing Devices Mouse Light pen Joystick Trackball Touchpad (notebooks) Touch Screen Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Input / Output (I/O) Devices Data Automation Input Devices OCR: Optical Character Recognition Utility Bills: ESB Typically use special font e.g. OCR1 OMR: Optical Mark Recognition (e.g. lotto tickets) Image scanner OCR software DIP: Document Image Processing e.g. for CAO forms Bar code Scanner Reads an optical code Universal Product Code: UPC (supermarket checkouts/ libraries) Often used as key component of Point-of-Sale system (POS) Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Input / Output (I/O) Devices Digital Camera Voice recognition (e.g. Viva Voice by IBM, Dragon) Handwriting recognition HP Ipaq; Palm Pilot Smart Cards contain a processor e.g. Telecom phonecards MICR Magnetic ink character recognition Used on bank cheques Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Output Devices Display devices: e.g. computer monitor is what most people use with PCs. A computer terminal is made up of a monitor and a keyboard. It is a dumb device unlike a PC. Terminals may be used to access a mainframe computer. Screen size varies from 15 to 27 inches, measured diagonally across the screen. Resolution Images are usually made up of tiny “dots” called pixels (picture elements). The higher the resolution , the better the quality of picture. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Output Devices Resolution may be measured by either pixel density e.g. .26 or .28 (distance between pixels in millimetres) or as a matrix of pixels e.g. 640 x 480 640 x 480 rows VGA standard 800 x SVGA standard 1024 x 768 XGA standard 1080 x SXGA standard 1600 x UXGA Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Output Devices Colour Most monitors are RGB (red-green-blue) i.e. form colours by combinations of primary colours. Most monitors produce non-interlaced images i.e all lines are redrawn when the screen is refreshed. TVs produce interlaced images i.e every other line is redrawn on every refresh. The screen is usually refreshed 60 times a second. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Output Devices Landscape: Screen is wider than it is high Portrait: Screen is higher than it is wide CRT versus Flat-Panel Desktop monitors are typically CRT (cathode-ray tube) devices like TVs, although flat screens are becoming more popular as they take up less space but are more expensive. Notebooks use flat-screens which require less power and are lightweight. Flat-screens often use LCD (liquid crystal display) technology. Active-matrix LCDs provide sharper images than passive-matrix LCDs but at higher cost. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Output Devices: Printers Variety of Print technologies Ink-jet: high quality and very popular: Usually Colour Laser (page printer): highest quality Colour laser printers are much more expensive than black&white Cost of ink-jet cartridges/colour toner is an issue in choosing a printer Dot-matrix: good quality largely replaced by ink-jet Line-printers: Fast, low quality bulk printing on computer paper Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Output Devices: Others Plotters: for CAD (Computer Aided Design) output architectural/engineering drawings A3 laser printers now also used for these applications Speakers As in sound systems Computer Output on Microfilm (COM) e.g. for archival purposes Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Communications Devices Modem: Modulator/demodulator Uses to allow computers communicate over analog telephone lines Converts computer digital signals to analog signals and vice versa Operates at speeds up to 56Kbps bps = bits per second ISDN Card Digital communication device requires digital phone line Operates at speeds from 64Kbps, 128 Kbps (home use) to low Megabit range Much more reliable than modem DSL/ADSL Card Similar to ISDN but operates at much higher speeds (140Kbps to 3 Mbps) Network Card (Ethernet card, LAN card): Short Distances (<1000m) used inside an organisation like UCD 10Mbps to 100Mpbs to 1000 Mbps Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Computer System: Storage and I/O Devices Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

I/O Devices and Communication Devices: Review Data entry Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, touch pad etc OCR, OMR, Barcode scanner, DIP, MICR Digital Camera, Voice, Smart Cards Output Monitor (VGA, SVGA, XGA etc) CRT, LCD Printer Inkjet, Laser, Dot-Matrix Plotter Speakers Communication Devices Modem ISDN ADSL/DSL Network Card Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Computer Networks A computer network is an interconnected collection of computers. The goals of a computer network include: Resource sharing: programs (O.S., applications), data, equipment (printers, disks) are available to all users of the network regardless of location. High availability: By replicating files on different machines and having spare CPUs, users are more immune from hardware/software failure. Less cost: Small machines have about 1/10 the power of a mainframe but 1/1000 the cost. A network of such machines can be installed at low cost. It is easy to increase the capacity by adding new machines. Communications medium: Users have access to and the Internet Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Computer Networks A Network may be classified as: Local Area Network: LAN Operates over small geographical area (1 to 2 kms) such as office complex,hospital, university campus e.g. UCD network High-speed networks: 10 to 100 Mbps are common but up to 1000MBps (Gigabit) Wide Area Network: WAN Operates over long distances - national or global e.g. a Bank’s national/international network Speed depends on communication medium used From slow 56Kbps to x Mbps Also Tiny Area Network: TAN - e.g. network of a few PCs in the home Metropolitan Area Network: MAN: network in a single city Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Client - Server Model Networks provide services on one or more computers for all users The machines providing a service are called servers. The machines (users) using the service are called clients. Several servers may be used to replicate data/services so that if one crashes, users can still access their data and the network services. Such a Client-Server Model is decentralised Example: A LAN with file server(s). Users store files and access software on the file server, but use their own PCs for processing. Dedicated servers may also be used for or for printing: mail servers and print servers. One advantage of client-server model is that users can avail of local processing on their own machines as well as the shared services of the network. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Terminal-Mainframe Model Centralised Model This model uses a central mainframe computer to do ALL processing Users use terminals to access mainframe computer Terminal is a screen and keyboard (can use a PC) Terminals can be local or remote (in a different building/city/country) Disadvantage: if mainframe crashes or needs to be serviced NO work can be done - single point of failure Advantages Can have enormous computing power to run applications which PCs cannot cope with Easier to maintain and secure - as there is only one computer Used for large commercial applications: e.g. banking, insurance Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Terminal-Mainframe Model Network Topologies. Networks can be interconnected in a number of ways The method used, determines the shape or topology of the network Common topologies include: Bus: used in LANs Ring: used in LANs Star: used in terminal mainframe model Single point of failure Tree: Land-line phone network Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Network Configuration. The user machines in a network are called hosts. The hosts are connected by a subnet Subnet carries messages between hosts. The subnet is made up of transmission lines (trunks, channels, circuits) and transmission lines carry bits switching elements (computers). switching elements connect the transmission lines Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Broadcast Networks In this system a message is broadcast over the network All machines have the possibility of receiving the message. Each machine has its own unique address and typically machine will only "listen" to messages that are sent to this address LANs are usually broadcast networks Ethernet is commonest example and is used in UCD Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Point to Point Networks Message is transmitted from one computer (point) to another (point) and so on, until the destination computer is reached. This is analogous to the postal system Letter is transferred from post-office to post-office and finally to the addressee. WANs usually use point to point Message is usually broken into smaller parts or packets Each packet is treated as a separate unit for delivery Packets can take different routes through the network e.g. if one point fails packets can be re-routed Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Data Transmission How data is is physically transmitted Medium: carries the data e.g. copper wire, glass fibre Shannon’s Law There is a maximum limit to the amount of data that can be transmitted using any transmission medium. Data is transmitted as signals The number of signals per second is the frequency of the signal. This is measured in Hertz (Hz). One cycle per second is 1 Hz. 1,000 cycles per second is 1 KHz One million cycles per second is 1 MHz. 1,000 million cycles per second is 1 GHz Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Data Transmission Bandwidth Bandwidth of a medium is the maximum range of frequencies that can be transmitted using that medium determines the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted A phone cable might have a bandwidth of .5 to 4 MHz An optic fibre has a bandwidth of up to 108 MHz. The higher the bandwidth the more data that can be transmitted per second Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Transmission Media Copper Wires Twisted Pair (TP) Coaxial Cable (coax) - two types (thick and thin!) 10-Base-5; 10-Base-2 standards Used with Ethernet 10 to 100 Mbps Fibre Optic Glass fibre Up to 1000 Mbps Wireless (x Kbps to x Mbps) Radio wireless LAN (wi-fi) Mbps in UCD Microwave Infrared Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Twisted Pairs (tp) They are used in telephone network for the local loop (connection between your home phone and the local telephone exchange). They carry electrical signals. A tp consists of two insulated copper wires (1mm diameter) twisted to reduce electrical interference. Capacity: dependent on the distances involved but can be up to several Mbps over a few Kms. For example ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) lines offer speeds from 64Kbps to over 1 Mbps More recently (2003), DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) and in particular ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) lines are available to home users with speeds of 1.5 to 6 Mbps. ISDN and ADSL both use digital transmission and so must use a digital line unlike the standard analog telephone line where a modem is used. You must install an ISDN card or an ADSL card into your PC to use an ISDN or ADSL line. A Network Interface Card (NIC) is used to connect a PC to a LAN Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Twisted Pairs (tp) TPs may be shielded (stp) or unshielded (utp) with the shielded having extra insulation. They are also classified into Category-5 (CAT-5) and Category-6 (CAT-6). CAT-5 can carry 10 or 100 Mbps (10/100Mbps) over short distances e.g. up to 100 metres approx. The communications standard used in this case is called 10/100-Base-T. This is the type of cable that is often used in building to connect PCs to a LAN. Usually, the CAT-5 cable connects to a either a hub or a switch which is less than 100 metres from each PC. There may be a hub for each floor/laboratory in a building. CAT-6 cable operates at 100/1000Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet) and is typically used to interconnect hubs. It is more expensive than CAT-5 cable. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Three Floor Building with CAT-6 Cable Backbone connecting LANs on each floor Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Twisted Pairs (tp) Large organisations frequently have a so-called "backbone" network that interconnects separate LANs in different buildings/rooms as in the diagram below. Over short distances CAT-6 cable may be used for the backbone but optic fibre is also often used as it can operate at higher speeds over longer distances. A UPS is also shown in the diagram. UPS: Uninterruptable Power Supply - provides battery backup power in event of power failure A UPS can cost from as little as €200 to €x,000 depending on amount of time it can keep system running In life critical systems, backup generators are necessary to cope in the event of power failure Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Types of Transmission There are three types of transmission. 1. Simplex: information is transmitted in one direction only and the roles of transmitter and receiver are fixed. This form is not used for conventional data transmission. 2. Half Duplex (HDX): transmission is allowed in both directions but in only one direction at a time. Data communication systems that use the telephone network sometimes transmit in HDX. 3. Full Duplex (FDX): sender/receiver can transmit and receive from each other at the same time. In order to transmit in FDX, the user usually has private direct lines. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Types of Transmission Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Data Transmission: Multiplexing With high bandwidth channels it is possible to share the channel so that a number of users can use the channel at the same time- called multiplexing. For example 4 users could each operate terminals at 1Mbps connected to mainframe over a single 4Mbps line as shown in the figure below. The 4 lines from the terminals are connected to a multiplexer which is connected to another multiplexer by the 4Mbps line. The second multiplexer de-multiplexes the signal onto 4 separate lines for the computer. Multiplexing is also used for voice transmission where optic fibres and microwave cable can handle from 8000 to simultaneous conversations. There are a number of types of multiplexing. Two common ones are Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Data Transmission Multiplexing Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Data Transmission: Modulation Analog Transmission: Dominated the last 100 years and is still widely used in phone network. Network designers made use of telephone network which was aimed at voice transmission. This is very poor for computer networking e.g. 2 computers connected by a direct cable can achieve a data rate of 100 Mbps upwards with very low error rate. Using phone lines, 56 Kbps is the maximum transmission speed with a relatively high error rate. Modems Phone lines deal with frequencies of 300 to 3000 Hz. A computer outputs a digital serial stream of bits (1’s, 0’s). A modem is a device that accepts such a bit stream and converts it to an analog signal, using modulation. It also performs the inverse conversion. Thus two computers can be connected using two modems and phone line. The serial interface between the modem and computer is governed by the RS-232 standard (also known as the CCITT V24 standard). Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Data Transmission: Modulation A transmitting modem sends a continuous signal (tone) in the range 1000 to Hz to the receiving modem. This carrier signal is modulated to an analog signal as in the figure below. Its amplitude, frequency, phase or a combination can be modulated . Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Frequency Modulation One common form of modulation Frequency Modulation (FM). In FM, the carrier signal is modulated between two different frequencies (say 1200Hz and 2200Hz) without affecting the amplitude in accordance with the digital signal that it must send. Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Review What is a network and why use one Client Server and Terminal-Mainframe Models LANs and WANs Network Topology: Bus, Ring and Tree Broadcast and Point-to-Point Networks Data Transmission: Bandwidth and Shannon’s Law Transmission Media: utp, coax, fibre, wireless Hubs and Cabling ISDN, ADSL, wi-fi HDX, FDX, Multiplexing Modulation Comp 1001: IT & Architecture - Joe Carthy

Comp 1001 Introduction to Information Technology & Computer Architecture Wednesday 12-1Dr. Joe Carthy http://www.cs.ucd.ie/staff/jcarthy/home/

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Comp 1001 Introduction to Information Technology & Computer Architecture Wednesday 12-1Dr. Joe Carthy http://www.cs.ucd.ie/staff/jcarthy/home/

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Presentation on theme: "Comp 1001 Introduction to Information Technology & Computer Architecture Wednesday 12-1Dr. Joe Carthy http://www.cs.ucd.ie/staff/jcarthy/home/"— Presentation transcript:

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