1. Ch 6- Alkyl Halides

2. Structures and Properties
Halogen is connected to a tetrahedral carbon
The carbon-halogen bond is polarized with the carbon having a partial positive charge and the halogen having a partial negative charge
The size of the halogen increases as you move down the group
Consequently, the C-X bond lengths increase so the bond strength decreases

3. Structures and Properties
Compounds with a halogen bonded to an sp2 carbon are called vinylic halides or phenyl halides
Ex.
Alkyl and aryl halides have very low solubility in water, but very stable in each other

4. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
General Reaction:
Examples:
Nucleophile- a species with an unshared electron pair.
Usually has either a full or partial negative charge
It is electron rich

5. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
The nucleophile reacts with the alkyl halide, replacing the halogen substituent
A substitution reaction takes place and the halogen substituent, called the leaving group, departs as an ion
Because the substitution is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called a nucleophilic substitution reaction

6. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
In the reaction, the C-X bond undergoes heterolysis and the electron pair from the nucleophile is used to make a new bond
There are two ways this can happen:
The C-X bond can break then the Nu-C bond forms
Bond making and breaking can happen at the same time.

7. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
When deciding which of these will occur, the decision will depend primarily on the structure of the alkyl halide.

8. Nucleophiles A nucleophile is a reagent that seeks a positive center
Here, the positive center is the carbon bonded to the halogen which has a partial positive charge
A nucleophile is any negative ion or any neutral molecule that has at least one unshared pair of electrons
Ex.

9. Leaving Groups
To act as a substrate, in a nucleophilic substitution reaction, a molecule must have a good leaving group
A good leaving group is a substituent that can leave as a relatively stable, weakly basic molecule or anion.
Recall that halogen ions are very weak bases because hydrogen halides are very strong acids

10. Kinetics of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction: An Sn2 reaction
To understand how the rate of a reaction is measured, we will consider the following reaction:
Reaction Rates are temperature dependant so we have to discuss the reaction at a specific temperature

11. Kinetics of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction: An Sn2 reaction
The rate of the reaction can be determined experimentally by measuring the rate at which chloromethane or hydroxide disappear or the rate that methanol or chloride ion appears
We do this by taking a small sample of the reaction mixture at different times and measure the concentration of chloromethane, hydroxide, methanol, or chloride.

12. Kinetics of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction: An Sn2 reaction
We know the initial concentration of the reactants because we measured them before starting the reaction.
Experiment #
Initial [CH3OH]
Initial [OH]
Initial Rate 1
.0010
1.0
4.9x10-7 2
.0020
9.8x10-7 3
2.0 4
19.6x10-7

13. Kinetics of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction: An Sn2 reaction
Notice the rate depends on both the concentration of chloromethane and hydroxide
When we double one, the rate doubled
When we doubled both the rate goes up by a factor of 4!
We can express this by a proportionality:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∝[ 𝐶𝐻 3 Cl] [OH]

14. Kinetics of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction: An Sn2 reaction
This proportionality can be expressed as an equation by including a proportionality constant (k) called the rate constant:
Rate = k [CH3Cl] [OH]
For this reaction at this temperature, the rate constant equals 4.9x10-4 L/mol sec
This reaction is said to be second order overall
In order for the reaction to take place, a hydroxide ion and a chloromethane molecule must collide

15. Kinetics of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction: An Sn2 reaction
Therefore, the reaction is bimolecular, which means 2 molecules are involved in the rate determining step
We call this kind of reaction an Sn2 reaction, Substitution, nucleophilic, Bimolecular

16. Mechanism for the Sn2 reaction
The negative hydroxide approaches the partially positive carbon from the backside
Concerted Reaction- bond breaking and bond making happen at the same time.
Configuration of the carbon being attacked is inverted due to the backside attact.

17. Stereochemistry of Sn2 reaction
The nucleophile approaches from the backside, from the side directly opposite the leaving group
This causes a change in configuration
The carbon being attacked inverts like an umbrella
Ex.
Inversion also always takes place with acyclic stereogenic carbons

18. Reaction of t-butyl chloride with OH: Sn1 reaction
When t-butyl chloride reacts with hydroxide in water/acetone, the kinetic results are very different than with Sn2 reactions
The rate of formation of t-butyl alcohol is dependent on the concentration of t-butyl chloride, but it is independent of the concentration of hydroxide.
Doubling the t-butyl chloride doubles the rate
But changing [OH] has no effect

19. Reaction of t-butyl chloride with OH: Sn1 reaction
The t-butyl chloride reacts by substitution at virtually the same rate in pure water ([OH]=10-7 M) as it does in 0.05M aqueous sodium hydroxide!
Thus the rate for this substitution is first order with respect to t-butyl chloride and first order overall
From this we can conclude that the hydroxide does not participate in the transition state of the step that controls the rate of the reaction.
Only the t-butyl chloride does

20. Reaction of t-butyl chloride with OH: Sn1 reaction
The reaction is said to be unimolecular in the rate determining step
It is an example of an Sn1 reaction.
Substitution, nucleophilic, Unimolecular
Because only the t-butyl chloride is present in the rate determining transition state, we can conclude that the reaction must have multiple steps

21. Multistep Reactions and the Rate Determining Step, RDS
If a reaction takes place in a series of steps, and one of the steps is slower than all the others, the rate of the overall reaction will essentially be the same as that slow step
That slow step is called the Rate-Determining Step, (RDS).

22. Mechanism for Sn1
The mechanism has two intermediates

23. Carbocations Carbocations are trigonal planar
The carbon bearing the positive charge is sp2 hybridized
The carbon is electron deficient as it only has 6 electrons.
Overall stability:

24. Stereochemistry of Sn1
Because the carbocation formed in the first step is planar, the nucleophile can attach from either side.
Often, this has no effect because the same product is formed
However, if the starting reactant is optically active, this will always result in a racemization
Racemization- a reaction transforms an optically active compound into a racemic form

25. Stereochemistry of Sn1
Racemization takes place whenever the reaction causes chiral molecules to be converted to an achiral intermediate Ex
The Sn1 reaction proceeds through the carbocation, which because it is trigonal planar, is achiral. The nucleophile can attack the carbocation from either side, thus producing both enantiomers in equal amounts.

26. Solvolysis
The Sn1 reaction of an alkyl halide with water is an example of solvolysis.
Solvolysis reaction- a nucleophile substitution in which the nucleophile is a molecule of the solvent
The previous reaction was in water, so it is also called a hydrolysis
If the reaction was in methanol, it would be a methanolysis.
Examples:

27. Factors affecting the rates of Sn1 and Sn2 reactions
Now we know the mechanism Sn1 and Sn2
The next thing is too explain why chloromethane went Sn2 t-butylchloride went Sn1
By the time we are done, you will be able to predict which pathway a reaction will undergo

28. Choosing between Sn2 and Sn1
If a given alkyl halide and nucleophile react rapidly via Sn2 but slow by Sn1 then a Sn2 pathway will be followed by most of the molecules and vice versa
A number of factors affect the relative rates of Sn1 and Sn2 reactions:

29. Factors that affect rates of Sn1 and Sn2
The most important are:
Structure of the substrate
- Is it a primary, secondary, tertiery alkyl halide?
The concentration and reactivity of the nucleophile
- For bimolecular reactions only
The effect of the solvent
The nature of the leaving group

30. Effect of the Structure of the Substrate
In Sn2 reactions, simple alkyl halides have the following general order of reactivity
The important factor behind this order is a steric effect
Steric Effect- an effect on relative rates caused by the space-filling properties of those parts of a molecule attached at or near the reaction site

31. Steric Effect One type of steric effect is Steric Hindrance
Steric Hindrance- the spatial arrangement of the atoms or groups at or near the reacting site of a molecule hinders or retards a reaction

32. Effect of the Structure of the Substrate
In Sn1 reactions, the primary factor that determines the reactivity of a substrate is the relative stability of the carbocation that is formed.
Because of this, only the tertiary alkyl halides react via Sn1 with reasonable rates
There are exceptions to this that we will cover later

33. Effect of Concentration and Strength of the Nucleophile
In Sn1 reaction, the nucleophile does not participate in the RDS, so the concentration and strength does not matter
In Sn2, the rate is dependent on both the substrate and the nucleophile
We have already seen how doubling the concentration of the nucleophile doubles the rate
We identify good and bad nucleophiles based on their rate of reaction in similar situations Ex

34. Nucleophile Strength vs Structure
The relative strengths of nucleophiles can be correlated with two structural features:
A negative charged nucleophile is always a more reactive nucleophile than its conjugate acid
In a group of nucleophiles in which the nucleophilic atom is the same, nucleophilicities parrallel basicities.

35. Solvent effects on Sn2 Reactions
Protic Solvents- those having a Hydrogen bond to an electronegative element such as Oxygen
These solvents can hydrogen bond to the nucleophile and hinder its reaction in an Sn2 reaction
Hydrogen bonding effects decreases with anion size

36. Solvent effects on Sn2 Reactions
Nucleophilicity of halide anions in protic solvents:
Relative Nucleophilicity in Protic Solvents:

37. Solvent effects on Sn2 Reactions
Aprotic Solvents- Solvents whose molecules do not have a hydrogen that is attached to an electronegative atom.
Aprotic Solvents are especially useful for Sn2 reactions!
Examples of Aprotic solvents:

38. Solvent effects on Sn2 Reactions
Aprotic Solvents dissolve ionic compounds and solvate cations well but not anions because their positive centers are well shielded.
Because anions are not solvated, small anions react faster.
Nucleophilicity in Aprotic Solvents:

39. Solvent effects on Sn2 Reactions
The rates of Sn2 reactions are vastly increased when they are carried out in polar aprotic solvents!
Take Home: Aprotic Solvents= Sn2

40. Solvent effects on Sn1 Reactions
Polar protic solvents greatly increase the rate of ionization of alkyl halides
This is the RDS, therefore it increases the rate of the Sn1 reactions.
So, in most cases, use of a protic solvent = Sn1

41. Nature of Leaving Group
The more stable an anion, the better the leaving group
General order of stabilities:
Some “Super” leaving groups are shown on page 269
Also, in some cases, bad leaving groups can be converted into good leaving groups with simple acid/base chemistry

42. Summary of Sn1 vs Sn2
Reactions of alkyl halides by Sn1 are favored by:
Substrates that form stable carbocations
Use of weak nucleophiles
Use of polar protic solvents
Sn2 favored by:
Unhindered alkyl halide
Strong nucleophiles
Aprotic solvents
High concentrations of nucleophile

43. Final Notes on Sn2/Sn1 Note the chart on page 272
These are all the functional group transformations possible through Sn2/Sn1 reactions!
Remember, Sn2 reactions always proceed with inversion of the stereocenter while Sn1 reactions proceed with the total loss of stereocenter and result in racemic mixture
Watch for “Double Inversion”

44. Elimination Reations
Elimination reactions are important reactions of alkyl halides that compete with Sn2/Sn1 reactions
Recall, in elimination reactions, 1 thing is eliminated from each of two adjacent carbons to form a double bond
Ex.

45. Elimination Reactions
A widely used method is the elimination of HX from an Alkyl Halide Ex
When the elements of a hydrogen halide are eliminated from a haloalkane, the reaction is called a dehydrohalogenation.

46. Elimination Reactions
In these eliminations, as in Sn1/Sn2, there is a Leaving group and an attacking Lewis base that posses an electron pair
They are also called β-elimination since the hydrogen that is removed is from the beta carbon

47. Base Used in Dehydrohalogenations
Very strong bases are used for elimination reactions
Typically, the sodium or potassium salts of alcohols are used
These sometimes present problems because they can also react as nucleophile
To avoid this, the salt of t-butanol is used
t-butoxide is very bulky which prevents it from being a good nucleophile

48. Mechanisms for Elimination Reactions
Just like substitutions, there are two
One has a bimolecular T.S. = E2
One has an unimolecular T.S. = E1
Mechanism for E2

49. Mechanisms for Elimination Reactions
Mechanism for E1
Problem!! E1 and Sn1 usually complete to give mixed products

50. Substitution vs Elimination
All nucleophiles are potential bases and vice versa
So substitution and elimination compete
Sn2 vs E2
Both favored by high concentration of nucleophile/base

51. Sn2 vs E2
1o LG
With a 1o alkyl halide and unhindered base favors substitution
With a hindered base, elimination is favored
2o LG
Strong base favors elimination due to steric hinderance
3o LG
No chance for Sn2 only elimination

52. Effect of Temperature Increasing the temperature favors
Low temperature favors substitution

53. Sn1 vs E1 E1 favored by: Sn1- very hard to favor Stable cations
Poor nucleophiles
Use protic solvents
High temperatures
Sn1- very hard to favor
Use low temperatures
Strong nucleophiles
Aprotic solvents

54. Overall Summary