1. ANTHONY PYM TRANSLATION LAWS AND UNIVERSALS AS SIGNALS OF RISK-AVERSION

2. BEHAVIORAL TENDENCIES Levý, Jiří. 1963/2011. Umění překladu: “it is the psychology inherent in the activity of translating that is behind the tendency for translators themselves to opt for generalisation, neutralisation and repetition [as opposed to variation].”

3. SOME TENDENCIES Simplification : “the process and/or result of making do with less [different] words” (Blum-Kulka and Levenston 1983) Explicitation : making implicit information explicit (Blum-Kulka 1986) Equalizing : avoidance of extremes of language use (Shlesinger 1989) Unique items : items only found in the target language tend not to be used (Tirkkonen-Condit 2004)

4. SOME LAWS Standardization : “conversion of textemes into repertoremes” (Toury 1995/2012) Interference : “The greater the text unit (phrase, sentence, paragraph, chapter), the greater the interference.” (Toury 1995/2012)

5. PROBLEMS WITH CORPORA All units are presumed to have the same value. Few probabilistic statistics are in sight. No modeling can be made of translation processes (especially effort). No causes can be identified.

6. CAUSES FOR TENDENCIES? Vinay and Darbelnet (1958): “prudence but also ignorance” Levý (1963): “communication” vs. “aesthetic function” Popovič (1975): “commercialization” vs. “quality” Chesterman (2004): “translators are also readers” Davidson (1973) “charity” or “rational accommodation” Quine (1990, 1995) “empathy”

7. RATIONAL RISK ANALYSIS Manage risk of communicative failure (when there a no mutual benefits for partners) Some items are high-risk, others are low-risk. Work hard on high-risk items (i.e. reduce risk) Do not work hard on low-risk items (i.e. accept risk) Blame someone else when high-risk items are not worth the effort (i.e. transfer risk) Run high risk?

8. A SIMPLE TRANSLATION PROBLEM

9. Ting Ting Maggie Hui, RISK MANAGEMENT BY TRAINEE TRANSLATORS: A STUDY OF TRANSLATION PROCEDURES AND JUSTIFICATIONS IN PEER-GROUP INTERACTION (2012)

10. “SHOP FEARLESSLY”

11. No.SolutionLiteral back- translation ProcedureRisk management 1 购物愉快! (during the process) Happy shopping!AdaptationR- 2 享受这个旅程! (during the process) Enjoy your tour!SubstitutionR- 3 祝您购物愉快哦！ (during the process) Wish you happiness when you do the shopping! ExplicitationR- 4 享受你在该店的“旅程” 。 (in final TT) Enjoy your “tour” in the shop. SubstitutionR-

12. “SHOP FEARLESSLY” C4: Hmm… hmmm… “(ST) Enjoy your adventure” 呢 ? C7: “(ST) Enjoy your adventure”, “ 愛 你的冒險 ”, haha… C4: “ 冒險 ” 不好 …… 不要 “ 冒險 ”, 但 是說 …… C7: 這是說, 你來第一次你會享受 …… 對, 第一次來你會享受 …… 只要來一次 你會想享受這裡面 …… C4: 對呀對呀 ! 因為他有點敢著說 …... 來到一個 …... 一個地方, 然後你 …… 你 享受可以找到很多東西 …… 所以這個 要翻成 …… “ 好好享受你的新發現吧 !” C7: Hmm, 挺好的 ! C4: Hmm… hmmm… “(ST) Enjoy your adventure”? C7: “(ST) Enjoy your adventure”, “Love your adventure”, haha… C4: “Adventure” is not good… Not to say “adventure”, how about… C7: So it means: When you come the first time you enjoy… right, when you come the first time you enjoy… just come once and you enjoy being here… C4: Right, right! Because it seems to say… come to a… a place, then you… you enjoy making many discoveries… so it can be translated as… “Enjoy the discoveries you make!” C7: Hmm, sounds good!

13. “SHOP FEARLESSLY” No.SolutionLiteral back- translation ProcedureRisk management 1 爱你的冒险 Love your adventureLiteralismR -> ST 2 好好享受你的新发 现 Enjoy the discoveries you make Shift of focus R-

14. “GET HUNGRY, SHOP FEARLESSLY” No.SolutionLiteral back- translation ProcedureRisk management 1 感到饿，就大胆 的 …… Get hungry, audaciously… ExaggerationR+ 2 感到饿，就行动 吧！ Get hungry, act now! OmissionR-

15. “FEARLESS”

16. TRANSLATOR’S RISK PROFILE

17. SOME TENDENCIES Simplification : “the process and/or result of making do with less [different] words” (Blum-Kulka and Levenston 1983) Explicitation : making implicit information explicit (Blum-Kulka 1986) Equalizing : avoidance of extremes of language use (Shlesinger 1989) Unique items : items only found in the target language tend not to be used (Tirkkonen-Condit 2004)

18. SOME LAWS Standardization : “conversion of textemes into repertoremes” (Toury 1995/2012) Interference : “The greater the text unit (phrase, sentence, paragraph, chapter), the greater the interference.” (Toury 1995/2012)

19. AN EXPLANATION With no equivalence With no fidelity With no essentialist Skopos or purpose With no assumption of “complete information” (Levý) With no more than a subject who estimates probable efforts and probable effects.

20. A UNIVERSAL REWARD STRUCTURE? “Authors always get the praise for what is good in a translation, and translators just get the blame for what is wrong” (Leonardo Bruni 1405)