1. Neoclassicism
1750—1815

2. Key Ideas
The Enlightenment brought about a rejection of royal and aristocratic authority. The Rococo style was replaced by the Neoclassical, which was perceived as more democratic.
Neoclassicism was inspired by the unearthing of the ruins at Pompeii and the books of art theorist Johann Winckelmann.
Even if works of art depict current events or contemporary portraits, there are frequent classical allusions
The late eighteenth century was the age of the Industrial Revolution: new technologies such as cast iron were introduced into architecture, and for the first time it became more economical to carve from bronze than marble.

3. Background Industrial Revolution
Population Boom due to mass-production, technological innovation and medical science
Improvements in quality of life that the Industrial Revolution yielded was offset to mechanized work and inhuman working conditions.
Europe gets swept by a new intellectual transformation called The Enlightenment. Philosophers and scientists based their ideas on logic and observation, rather than tradition and folk wisdom. Knowledge began to be structured in a deliberate way: Denis Diderot (1713—1784) organized and edited a massive 52-volume French encyclopedia in 1764, Samuel Johnson (1709—1784) composed the first English dictionary singlehandedly in 1755, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau discussed how a legitimate government was an expression of the general will in his 1762 Social Contract.

4. Patrons & Artists Rome saw little artistic progress
This was magnified by the discovery of Pompeii. As Roman works were being dug up the world would admire the ancient city.
Pompeii inspired art theorist Johann Winckelmann (1717—1768) to publish The History of Ancient Art in 1764, which many consider the first art history book. Winckelmann heavily criticized the waning Rococo as decadent, and celebrated the ancients for their purity of form and crispness of execution.
This inspired a renewed interest in the ancients. Academies sprang up in Europe and the US. Artists would train in what was thought proper classical tradition—part of that training sent many artists to Rome to study works firsthand.
The blessings of the Neoclassical period were firmly entrenched in the mind of art professionals and educated amateurs.

5. Architectural Innovations
Introduction of Cast Iron (not to be confused with Steel)
Classicists saw the daring use of exposed iron as an anathema because ancient buildings with their massive stone walls were to them the only acceptable building medium. Gradual change. Even conservative architects recognized the strength and economy of metal construction and used these material in the substructure or behind the walls of stone or wood buildings.

6. Characteristics of Neoclassical Architecture
Clever mix of classical principles into modern framework
Outward character of the Roman works and tailored to living in the eighteenth century
Greek and Roman columns, capitals on façade of great houses. Pediment crowned entrances and a topped windows. Domes graced the center of homes creating gallery space. Almost perfectly symmetrical. Rectangular rooms almost mirroring each other. Each room a different theme. Like the White House sometimes labeled ‘The Green Room’, ‘The Red Room’.

7. Chiswick House
Richard Boyle and William Kent, Chiswick House, 1725, London, England
Boyle: amateur architect. Kent interior and designer
Influenced of Palladian motif of the decorated balls on the balustrade of the main floor; Palladian low dome; main floor raised over exposed basement level; pediments over windows and doors
Jones statue at far right (father of English classicism)
Symmetrical balance of façade, even chimneys were balanced

8. Chiswick House
Un-Italian are the large semicircular dome windows and obelisk like chimneys
Rusticated bottom floor influenced by Italian Renaissance buildings
Clear, open, white stone surface above, with no ornamentation
Baroque tradition lingers in the double staircase that changes view as it ascends
Domed central room is an art gallery containing busts and paintings
Not a real residence, but a pavilion where Boyle would entertain guests and show his art collection
Richly decorated rooms of brilliant color

9. Monticello
Thomas Jefferson, Monticello, 1770—1806, Charlottesville, Virginia
“Little Mountain” in Italian
Chief building on Jefferson’s plantation
Symmetrical interior design
Brick building, stucco applied to trim to give the effect of marble
Tall French doors and windows to allow circulation in hot Virginia summers

10. Monticello
Appears to be a one-story building with a dome, but the balustrade hides the second floor
Inspired by Palladio and Roman ruins in France
Octagonal dome
Jefferson obsessed with saving space in his home: very narrow spiral staircases, beds in alcoves or in walls between rooms

11. The Royal Crescent
John Wood the Younger, The Royal Crescent, 1769—1775, Bath, England
Bath is a summer resort where the wealthy can take in the health benefits of the naturally warmed waters
Wood’s Roman design is in keeping with Bath being an ancient Roman city
Thirty residences in an elliptical sweep
Grand Ionic columns rhythmically framing windows
Balustraded cornice unifies composition
Typically English chimney pots placed at rhythmically spaced points along the roofline
English characteristic in great length of the crescent
Public rooms on the second floor of the houses to provide a majestic view down the hill below

12. Coalbrookdale Bridge
Abraham Darby and Thomas Pritchard, Coalbrookdale Bridge, , England
First substantial structure made of iron
Five parallel metal Roman arches
Cast iron is brittle, but the clever design has made the bridge stand effectively

13. Painting Innovations
Artists cloak their modern sitters in ancient garb, and make their faces more noble to appear antique
Example; Canova sculpted George Washington to look like a Roman General
Despite the new idea Benjamin West took epic contemporary events and would wrap the figures in modern drapery as in Death of General Wolfe

14. Painting Characteristics
Reminiscent of antiquity
Mythological or Biblical scenes with modern context
Horatii might be boring if it didn’t add the implication of self-sacrifice for the greater good
This would be called exemplum virtitus; a painting that tells a moral tale for the viewer

15. Painting Characteristics
Even without exemplum virtitus they would have reference to subtexts inviting the viewer to take measure of a person, a situation, and a state of affairs.
Copley’s portrait of Samuel Adams considering Adams statement about the Boston Massacre
Compositions were symmetrical, with linear perspective leading the eye
Mostly invisible brushwork and clear detail

16. Samuel Adams
John Singleton Copley, Samuel Adams, , oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Portrait contains forceful and direct gaze, engaging the spectator in a confrontation; focus on the head
Figure up close to the picture plane
Rich colors, concentration on reflective surfaces
Meticulous handling of paint
Adams pointing in an animated way at the Massachusetts charter; confronting the Massachusetts governor over the Boston Massacre; powerful gesture

18. Death of General Wolfe
Benjamin West, Death of General Wolfe, 1771, oil on canvas, National Gallery, Ottawa
Scene depicting the Battle of Quebec in 1759
An attempt to show the entire battle in the background of the painting: English boats unloading their cannon in early morning at extreme right; cannon put in place in center distance at mid-morning; battle at left with Quebec cathedral breaking through the smoke
Very short battle, French in disarray and running from the battle scene
French colors captured at left and brought to General Wolfe before his death
Wolfe died nearly alone, but in the painting he is surrounded by friends and admires
Wolfe’s unflattering looks, his cleft chin, his large protruding eyes, his small mouth, and his upturned nose are minimized in his upturned heavenward glance

19. Death of General Wolfe
Wolfe’s unflattering looks, his cleft chin, his large protruding eyes, his small mouth, and his upturned nose are minimized in his upturned heavenward glance
Compositional arrangement in thirds reflects triptych, like compositions of the Renaissance; triangular units reflect High Renaissance paintings
Religious associations of the victory: Protestantism over Catholicism
Wolfe bathed in the pool of light; he is in the pose of Christ being taken down from the cross

20. Wolfe’s pose also cf. Dying Gaul and Michelangelo’s Pieta
Native American sets the scene as the Americas and contemplates the consequences of Wolfe’s victory
Great innovation in portraying Wolfe in contemporary costume rather than Roman robes

21. Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Treasures
Angelica Kauffman, Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Treasures, 1785, oil on canvas, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond
Exemplum Virtutis
Story and setting is Roman, with figures before an Italian background
Cornelia, a noble woman, is shown jewelry by a visitor who asks to see Cornelia’s jewels
Cornelia responds that her children are her jewels and presents her sons; interestingly, her daughter is not presented in this light
A truly noble woman places her children above material possessions

22. Oath of the Horatii

23. Oath of the Horatii
Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784, oil on canvas, Louvre, Paris
Exemplum virtutis
Story of three Roman brothers (the Horatii) who do battle with three other brothers (the Curiatii) from a nearby city; they pledge their fidelity to their father and to Rome
One of the three women on right is a Horatii engaged to one of the Curiatii brothers; another woman is the sister of the Curiatii brothers
Forms are vigorous, powerful, animated, emphatic
Gestures are sweeping and unified
Figures pushed to the foreground
Neoclassical drapery and tripartite composition

24. Oath of the Horatii
Not Neoclassical in its Caravaggio-like lighting and un-Roman architectural capitals
Painted under royal patronage

25. Death of Marat
Jacques-Louis David, Death of Marat, 1793, oil on canvas, Royal Museum, Brussels
Marat was a leader of the French Revolution, who was stabbed in his bathtub by Charlotte Corday, a more moderate revolutionary who denounced the killing of the king
Suffering from skin cancer, Marat took baths for hours to relieve the itch; he is not shown with the effects of cancer except for his turban soaked in vinegar, thought to have been a cure

26. Death of Marat
His desk is set up in the tub so he can do work; killed at the moment of issuing a letter of condolences
Killed with a butcher knife with blood still on the handle
Pose is the Descent from the Cross, or Michelangelo’s Pieta
Tombstone like desk inscribed “To Marat, David, Year 2” reflecting the French Revolution’s reordering of the calendar
Caravaggio-like lighting

27. Sculpture Prior to Industrial Revolution, bronze was inefficient
Mass production of metal in England & Germany caused price of bronze to fall
Stonework relied on manual labor; a high cost
It was felt that ancients preferred marble and so it seemed more authentic and more authoritative in appeal
It was also assumed the ancient preferred unpainted sculpture; because the painted on the marbles came off over time

28. Sculptural Characteristics
Mindful of the classics
Desire for the realism
Wrapped in robes but in more realistic contemporary poses
Carved from white marble with no paint added

29. Cupid and Psyche

30. Cupid and Psyche
Antonio Canova, Cupid and Psyche, 1787—1793, marble, Louvre, Paris

31. Pauline Borghese as Venus

32. Pauline Borghese as Venus
Antonio Canova, Pauline Borghese as Venus, 1808, marble, Galleria Borghese, Rome