1. Thursday Lecture – Fruits and Nuts of Temperate Regions II
Reading: Textbook, Chapter 3
Today we will continue making a survey of crops that are used as food by people, with a focus on fruits and nuts from the temperate zone.

2. OPTIONAL ASSIGNMENT
What are the tropics? - define and explain this term, especially as it applies to the factors that affect the growth of plants, including economically important ones.
Due Tuesday, Feb. 8 - return as hard copy or by

7. Quiz
Fill in the blank. An ovule develops into a(n) _____
An ovary develops into a(n) _____
Which of the following is actually a berry:
strawberry
raspberry
blackberry
blueberry
cherry

8. Temperate Fruit & Nut Crops
Rosaceae – Rose Family
Apples, Pears, and Quinces
Plums, Cherries, Peaches, Apricots, Almonds
Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries
Blueberries & Cranberries
Grapes
Olives
Kiwi Fruit
Walnuts & Pecans
Pistachios
See Tables 3.2, p. 55; Table 3.5, p
A variety of crops in the temperate zone are grown for the fruits that they produce - these are discussed in Chapter 3, and we will consider some of them in lecture.

9. Stone Fruits – Plums, Cherries, Peaches, Apricots
The so-called stone fruits are members of the Rosaceae in which the fruit is a drupe. Plums, cherries, peaches, and apricots are all members of the large genus Prunus - all members of this genus have similar white or pinkish flowers that have 5 sepals, 5 petals, numerous stamens, and a single ovary which develops into a 1-seeded fruit.

10. Stone Fruits – Cherries
Cherries are a popular fruit, and are widely grown both as ornamentals for their flowers (there are some “weeping cherries” planted near the Stokely Management Center that will have attractive cascading branches full of flowers in a few weeks) as well as for their fruits.

11. Stone Fruits – Plums and Peaches
Plums and peaches are widely grown in the temperate zone, primarily as fruit crops. In eastern Tennessee, the climate is marginal for commercial peach orchards - the plants are susceptible to late freezes (after the flowers have opened), and a full crop is not obtained every year.

12. Berries that are not really berries
Brambles – raspberries and blackberries
Fruit = aggregate of small drupes (drupelets)
Another aggregate of individually small fruits is found in the blackberries and their relatives, which are classified in the genus Rubus. The flower pattern is the same as for other members of the Rosaceae - 5 sepals, 5 whitish or pinkish petals, and numerous stamens. In the case of blackberries, there are numerous individually small ovaries in the flower, and these expand to form small drupes (drupelets) that adhere together to form the fruit. In contrast to strawberries, receptacle stays relatively small and it is the fruits themselves that form the seet, fleshy, attractive part of the aggregate fruit.

13. Berries that are not really berries
Raspberry – receptacle stays behind when fruit detached
Blackberry – receptacle detaches with fruit
Depending on the size and nature of the receptacle as well as the growth habit and other aspects of the plant, the “brambles” are subdivided into informal groups for culinary purposes. In the raspberries, the receptacle remains on the plant when the fruit is removed, so the fruits are more tender (as well as more fragile) than other brambles. In the blackberries, the receptacle goes with the fruit. Loganberries and boysenberries are polyploids which include genomes from both raspberries and blackberries.
Black raspberry
Blackberry
Loganberry
Boysenberry

14. Berries that are not really berries
Strawberry - Fragaria
As we discussed in the last class, fruits of strawberries are botanically berries, but rather they consist of a large number of individually small achenes that embedded in a receptacle that becomes large and fleshy and red in color as it matures.
See Fig. 3.8, p. 66

15. Berries that are not really berries
Strawberry - Fragaria
A polyploid origin involving both New and Old World.
As we discussed in the last class, fruits of strawberries are botanically berries, but rather they consist of a large number of individually small achenes that embedded in a receptacle that becomes large and fleshy and red in color as it matures.
See Fig. 3.8, p. 66

16. Berries that are not really berries
Strawberry - Fragaria
A polyploid origin involving both New and Old World.
Old World: woodland strawberry 2x
As we discussed in the last class, fruits of strawberries are botanically berries, but rather they consist of a large number of individually small achenes that embedded in a receptacle that becomes large and fleshy and red in color as it matures.
See Fig. 3.8, p. 66

17. Berries that are not really berries
Strawberry - Fragaria
A polyploid origin involving both New and Old World.
Old World: woodland strawberry 2x
New World: North America 8x
South America 8x
As we discussed in the last class, fruits of strawberries are botanically berries, but rather they consist of a large number of individually small achenes that embedded in a receptacle that becomes large and fleshy and red in color as it matures.
See Fig. 3.8, p. 66

18. Berries that are not really berries
Strawberry - Fragaria
A polyploid origin involving both New and Old World.
Old World: woodland strawberry 2x
New World: North America 8x
South America 8x
New World species  Old World, hybridize in gardens
As we discussed in the last class, fruits of strawberries are botanically berries, but rather they consist of a large number of individually small achenes that embedded in a receptacle that becomes large and fleshy and red in color as it matures.
See Fig. 3.8, p. 66

19. Berries that are not really berries
Strawberry - Fragaria
A polyploid origin involving both New and Old World.
Old World: woodland strawberry 2x
New World: North America 8x
South America 8x
New World species  Old World, hybridize in gardens
 Fragaria x ananassa Garden strawberry
As we discussed in the last class, fruits of strawberries are botanically berries, but rather they consist of a large number of individually small achenes that embedded in a receptacle that becomes large and fleshy and red in color as it matures.
See Fig. 3.8, p. 66

20. Berries that are really Berries
Blueberry
See Fig. 3.9, p. 67
The fruits of members of the genus Vaccinium are really berries - they have multiple seeds directly embedded in a fleshy pulp. The blueberries are widely grown for their sweet fruits. Cranberry species are found both in Europe and in North America - the North American species was used by the Native Americans as a component of the travel food called pemmican. Cranberries are grown in boggy areas that can be periodically flooded to protect the plants and to facilitate harvesting the crop.

21. Berries that are really Berries
Blueberry
See Fig. 3.9, p. 67
Cranberry
The fruits of members of the genus Vaccinium are really berries - they have multiple seeds directly embedded in a fleshy pulp. The blueberries are widely grown for their sweet fruits. Cranberry species are found both in Europe and in North America - the North American species was used by the Native Americans as a component of the travel food called pemmican. Cranberries are grown in boggy areas that can be periodically flooded to protect the plants and to facilitate harvesting the crop.

22. Another Popular Berry Flowers Grapes - Vitis See Fig. 3.11, p. 68
Vineyard grapes
Muscadine grapes
The fruit of members of the genus Vitis is also botanically a berry. Although these are eaten fresh as fruits, grapes are also of considerable importance as the major fruit used to produce wine, and we will consider them more fully in a later lecture.
Table grapes

23. A Berry with an Accent See Fig. 3.14, p. 70
Kiwi Fruit – Actinidia deliciosa (original common name = Chinese gooseberry)
Another berry is produced by the plant that we call the kiwi fruit. These had been gathered and eaten for many years in areas of Asia where they are native. However, widespread commercial production came after it was introduced to New Zealand, where it was renamed to facilitate marketing it.
Note: some individuals can be allergic to kiwi

24. Drupes Again See Fig. 3.12, p. 68 Olive – Olea europea
The olive produces a drupe for its fruit. We will consider this plant more fully when we discuss vegetable oils.

25. Nuts to You Walnuts Pecans See Fig. 3.15, 3.16, p. 70-71
The term nut has various definitions - in the culinary sense it is used broadly for fruits that are variously considered to be legumes (peanuts), drupes (almonds, pistachios), and true nuts by the botanist. The pecans and walnuts provide a borderline case - they are 1-seeded fruits that have some characteristics as drupes, but the mesocarp is not fleshy at maturity, so they are sometimes called drupaceous nuts or dry drupes. Pecans are native to eastern North America, and are favored among other hickory nuts because the fruit walls are relatively thin and easy to separate from the large, oily embryos. Walnut species occur in both North America and Eurasia; the commercially used walnut is a native of the near East region that has acquired the misnomer “English Walnut”. In both pecans and walnuts, the somewhat fleshy outer layers are derived from the sepals - in pecans (like other hickory nuts), these split along regular lines, but in the walnuts they grow together seamlessy.
See Fig. 3.15, 3.16, p

26. More Nuts See Figs. 3.17, 3.18, p. 72 Chestnut - Castanea Hazelnut
True nuts are found in the genus Castanea, which gives us the chestnuts, and in the genus Corylus, which produce the hazelnuts. In both genera there are North American and Eurasian species, and in both it is the Eurasian members that are commercially important. The near extinction of our native American Chestnut, Castanea dentata, as the result of spread of the chestnut blight is a sad and cautionary tale of the impact of human activities on our native biota that we will consider in a later lecture.

27. Nuts that are not nuts Almond - Prunus Fig. 3.19, p. 73;
Figs. 3.20, 3.21, p. 74
Pistachio – Pistacia vera
Pistachios and almonds are both examples of drupes in which we strip away and discard the skin and the fleshy mesocarp and remove the seed for eating from the hardened endocarp. Pistachios were for many years almost universally dyed red before being sold; the origin of this treatment is not clear but it is believed to have been a marketing ploy to hide visual imperfections in the shells (endocarps). The problematic nature of red dyes has led to a reversion to marketing them in their natural, tan to whitish color. Almonds are closely related and very similar to peaches, but the part that we eat in the peach we throw away in the almond and vice versa (almost - in neither do we consume the hard, inedible endocarp).

28. Tropical Fruits & Nuts
Pistachios and almonds are both examples of drupes in which we strip away and discard the skin and the fleshy mesocarp and remove the seed for eating from the hardened endocarp. Pistachios were for many years almost universally dyed red before being sold; the origin of this treatment is not clear but it is believed to have been a marketing ploy to hide visual imperfections in the shells (endocarps). The problematic nature of red dyes has led to a reversion to marketing them in their natural, tan to whitish color. Almonds are closely related and very similar to peaches, but the part that we eat in the peach we throw away in the almond and vice versa (almost - in neither do we consume the hard, inedible endocarp).

29. Citrus
See Fig. 4.1, p. 79
Citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes etc. come from woody plants that are classified in the genus Citrus. All members of this group have somewhat shiny leaves, often have thorny stems, and have fragrant white-colored flowers with numerous stamens and a single compound ovary.

30. Citrus fruit = hesperidium
Hesperidium = special type of berry (name from the Hesperides, sisters in the garden of Hera, visited by Hercules)
The fruit of citrus species is a special kind of berry called a hesperidium. The name derives from classical Greek mythology. In a hesperidium, there are numerous hairs (trichomes) that become swollen with liquid and form the “fleshy” part that surrounds the seeds. The “sections” are the individual units that make up the compound ovary.

31. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

32. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
Grapefruit – C. paradisi (hybrid – C. maxima x C. sinensis)
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

33. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
Grapefruit – C. paradisi (hybrid – C. maxima x C. sinensis)
Lemon – C. limon (trihybrid – C. medica, C. maxima, other)
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

34. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
Grapefruit – C. paradisi (hybrid – C. maxima x C. sinensis)
Lemon – C. limon (trihybrid – C. medica, C. maxima, other)
Lime – C. aurantifolia (trihybrid, like lemon)
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

35. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
Grapefruit – C. paradisi (hybrid – C. maxima x C. sinensis)
Lemon – C. limon (trihybrid – C. medica, C. maxima, other)
Lime – C. aurantifolia (trihybrid, like lemon)
Orange, bitter – C. aurantinum (C. reticulata x C. maxima)
Orange, sweet – C. sinensis (C. reticulata x C. maximia)
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

36. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
Grapefruit – C. paradisi (hybrid – C. maxima x C. sinensis)
Lemon – C. limon (trihybrid – C. medica, C. maxima, other)
Lime – C. aurantifolia (trihybrid, like lemon)
Orange, bitter – C. aurantinum (C. reticulata x C. maxima)
Orange, sweet – C. sinensis (C. reticulata x C. maximia)
Pummelo – C. maxima
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

37. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
Grapefruit – C. paradisi (hybrid – C. maxima x C. sinensis)
Lemon – C. limon (trihybrid – C. medica, C. maxima, other)
Lime – C. aurantifolia (trihybrid, like lemon)
Orange, bitter – C. aurantinum (C. reticulata x C. maxima)
Orange, sweet – C. sinensis (C. reticulata x C. maximia)
Pummelo – C. maxima
Tangerine, Mandarine, Clementine – C. reticulata
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

38. Citrus Crops Citron – C. medica
Grapefruit – C. paradisi (hybrid – C. maxima x C. sinensis)
Lemon – C. limon (trihybrid – C. medica, C. maxima, other)
Lime – C. aurantifolia (trihybrid, like lemon)
Orange, bitter – C. aurantinum (C. reticulata x C. maxima)
Orange, sweet – C. sinensis (C. reticulata x C. maximia)
Pummelo – C. maxima
Tangerine, Mandarine, Clementine – C. reticulata
Uglifruit – hybrid, C. paradisi x C. reticulata
The classification of citrus species has been complicated by the presence of apomictic reproduction - seeds are formed asexually - combined with the propensity for hybridization between species. A few crops such as pummelo and tangerine represent domesticated species; other crops such as grapefruits, lemons, lime, and oranges are hybrids, sometimes involving multiple original species.

39. Orangerie
The orangerie was a type of garden arrangement in Europe that allowed frost-sensitive plants to be grown outside in the summer, then moved indoors into glasshouses to produce a winter supply of fruit. These images are from the famous orangerie at Versailles, France.

40. Kumquat – Fortunella japonica and F. margarita
The kumquat is another citrus fruit that is classified in a separate genus, Fortunella. Kumquats may be consumed whole, and are considered by some to be good for digestion.

41. Yes, We Have No Bananas See Fig. 4.17, p. 94
The banana is a plant that has become an important foodstuff in tropical areas, and is exported to temperate areas because it ships well.

42. Banana Republics Banana wars Strain European-US relations
From "L'Italo Americano," March 11, 1999
GENEVA (AP) - The European Union has filed a complaint against the United States before the World Trade Organization, saying U.S. moves to impose sanctions in a dispute over bananas violate global trading rules.
The history of the banana in Central America is closely linked to the political and social developments that have occurred there. The U.S. government has more than once intervened into the affairs of sovereign countries there to protect the interest of the giant fruit companies such as Dole and United Fruit. Trade wars continue into the 21st century involving tariffs that affect the profitability of crops from different countries.
Wheat: lbs/acre Corn: 2,800 lbs/acre Bananas: 18,000 lbs/acre
Late 19th-mid-20th century – U.S. Interventions in Central America
1990s – disputes over tariffs with World Trade Organization

43. Pineapples – The Multiple Fruit
Ananas comosus - Bromeliaceae
See Fig. 4.16, p. 93
Pineapples are a staple crop in Hawaii, although the plant originated in lowland South America. The pineapple is an example of a fruit derived from an entire inflorescence - as the ovaries from the separate flowers mature, they fuse together to form single fruit - such a fruit is called a multiple fruit.

44. Tuesday Lecture – Fruits and Nuts of Warm Regions
Reading: Textbook, Chapter 4
In the next class we will shift our attention to Chapter 4 and our geographic focus to fruit and nut crops from tropical regions.