1. Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
Chapter 40:
Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

2. Figure 40.1 A sphinx moth feeding on orchid nectar

3. Figure 40.2 Evolutionary convergence in fast swimmers
(a) Tuna
(b) Shark
(c) Penguin
(d) Dolphin
(e) Seal

4. Figure 40.3 Contact with the environment
Diffusion
(a) Single cell
Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity
(b) Two cell layers

5. Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
External environment
Food
CO2 O2
Mouth
Animal
body
Respiratory
system
Circulatory
Nutrients
Excretory
Digestive
Heart
Blood
Cells
Interstitial
fluid
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste
products (urine)
The lining of the small intestine, a diges-
tive organ, is elaborated with fingerlike
projections that expand the surface area
for nutrient absorption (cross-section, SEM).
A microscopic view of the lung reveals
that it is much more spongelike than
balloonlike. This construction provides
an expansive wet surface for gas
exchange with the environment (SEM).
Inside a kidney is a mass of microscopic
tubules that exhange chemicals with
blood flowing through a web of tiny
vessels called capillaries (SEM).
0.5 cm
10 µm
50 µm

6. Table 40.1 Organ Systems: Their Main Components and Functions in Mammals

7. Figure 40.6 Tissue layers of the stomach, a digestive organ
Lumen of
stomach
Mucosa. The mucosa is an
epithelial layer that lines
the lumen.
Submucosa. The submucosa is
a matrix of connective tissue
that contains blood vessels
and nerves.
Muscularis. The muscularis consists mainly of smooth muscle tissue.
0.2 mm
Serosa. External to the muscularis is the serosa, a thin layer of connective and epithelial tissue.

8. Figure 40.8 Measuring metabolic rate
(a) This photograph shows a ghost crab in a respirometer. Temperature is held constant in the chamber, with air of known O2 concentration flow- ing through. The crab’s metabolic rate is calculated from the difference between the amount of O2 entering and the amount of O2 leaving the respirometer. This crab is on a treadmill, running at a constant speed as measurements are made.
(b) Similarly, the metabolic rate of a man fitted with a breathing apparatus is being monitored while he works out on a stationary bike.

9. Figure 40.10 Energy budgets for four animals
Endotherms
Ectotherm
Annual energy expenditure (kcal/yr)
800,000
Basal
metabolic
rate
Reproduction
Temperature
regulation costs
Growth
Activity
costs
60-kg female human
from temperate climate
Total annual energy expenditures
(a)
340,000
4-kg male Adélie penguin
from Antarctica (brooding)
4,000
0.025-kg female deer mouse
from temperate
North America
8,000
4-kg female python
from Australia
Energy expenditure per unit mass
(kcal/kg•day)
438
Deer mouse
233
Adélie penguin
36.5
Human
5.5
Python
Energy expenditures per unit mass (kcal/kg•day)
(b)

10. Figure 40.11 A nonliving example of negative feedback: control of room temperature
Response
No heat
produced
Room
temperature
decreases
Heater
turned
off
Set point
Too
hot
Set
point
Control center:
thermostat
increases on
cold
Heat

11. Figure 40.12 The relationship between body temperature and environmental temperature in an aquatic endotherm and ectotherm
River otter (endotherm)
Largemouth bass (ectotherm)
Ambient (environmental) temperature (°C)
Body temperature (°C) 40 30 20 10

12. Figure 40.13 Heat exchange between an organism and its environment
Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic
waves by all objects warmer than absolute
zero. Radiation can transfer heat between
objects that are not in direct contact, as when
a lizard absorbs heat radiating from the sun.
Evaporation is the removal of heat from the surface of a
liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas.
Evaporation of water from a lizard’s moist surfaces that
are exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the
movement of air or liquid past a surface,
as when a breeze contributes to heat loss
from a lizard’s dry skin, or blood moves
heat from the body core to the extremities.
Conduction is the direct transfer of thermal motion (heat)
between molecules of objects in direct contact with each
other, as when a lizard sits on a hot rock.

13. Figure 40.14 Mammalian integumentary system
Hair
Sweat
pore
Muscle
Nerve
gland
Oil gland
Hair follicle
Blood vessels
Adipose tissue
Hypodermis
Dermis
Epidermis

14. Figure 40.18 A terrestrial mammal bathing, an adaptation that enhances evaporative cooling

15. Internal body temperature
Figure 40.21 The thermostat function of the hypothalamus in human thermoregulation
Thermostat in
hypothalamus
activates cooling
mechanisms.
Sweat glands secrete
sweat that evaporates,
cooling the body.
Blood vessels
in skin dilate:
capillaries fill
with warm blood;
heat radiates from
skin surface.
Body temperature
decreases;
thermostat
shuts off cooling
Increased body
temperature (such
as when exercising
or in hot
surroundings)
Homeostasis:
Internal body temperature
of approximately 36–38C
increases;
shuts off warming
Decreased body
temperature
(such as when
in cold
Blood vessels in skin
constrict, diverting blood
from skin to deeper tissues
and reducing heat loss
from skin surface.
Skeletal muscles rapidly
contract, causing shivering,
which generates heat.
activates
warming