1. Chapter 15 Water and Aqueous Systems 15.2 Homogeneous Aqueous Systems
15.1 Water and Its Properties
15.2 Homogeneous Aqueous
Systems
15.3 Heterogeneous Aqueous
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

2. How can you make a pickle glow?
CHEMISTRY & YOU
How can you make a pickle glow?
Although it sounds absurd, an ordinary dill pickle from the deli can be a source of light when connected to an electric current!
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

3. What types of substances dissolve most readily in water?
Solutions
Solutions
What types of substances dissolve most readily in water?
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

4. What types of substances dissolve most readily in water?
Solutions
Solutions
What types of substances dissolve most readily in water?
An aqueous solution is water that contains dissolved substances.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

5. In a solution, the dissolving medium is the solvent.
Solutions
Solvents and Solutes
In a solution, the dissolving medium is the solvent.
The dissolved particles in a solution are the solute.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

6. A solvent dissolves the solute.
Solutions
Solvents and Solutes
A solvent dissolves the solute.
The solute becomes dispersed in the solvent.
Solvents and solutes may be gases, liquids, or solids.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

7. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
Solvents and Solutes
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
Solute particles can be atoms, ions, or molecules.
If you filter a solution through filter paper, both the solute and solvent pass through the filter.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

8. Solutions
Solvents and Solutes
Substances that dissolve most readily in water include ionic compounds and polar covalent compounds.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

9. Solutions
Solvents and Solutes
Substances that dissolve most readily in water include ionic compounds and polar covalent compounds.
Nonpolar covalent compounds, such as methane, and compounds found in oil, grease, and gasoline, do not dissolve in water.
However, oil and grease will dissolve in gasoline.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

10. Solutions
The Solution Process
A water molecule is polar, with a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and partial positive charges on the hydrogen atoms.
As individual solute ions break away from the crystal, the negatively and positively charged ions become surrounded by solvent molecules and the ionic crystal dissolves.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

11. Solutions
The Solution Process
Solvated ions
Surface of ionic solid
The process by which the positive and negative ions of an ionic solid become surrounded by solvent molecules is called solvation.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

12. Solutions
The Solution Process
Polar solvents such as water dissolve ionic compounds and polar compounds.
Nonpolar solvents such as gasoline dissolve nonpolar compounds.
This relationship can be summed up in the expression “like dissolves like.”
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

13. Which of these compounds should not dissolve in water?
A. HCl
B. C4H10
C. KI
D. NH3
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

14. Which of these compounds should not dissolve in water?
A. HCl
B. C4H10
C. KI
D. NH3
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

15. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Why are all ionic compounds electrolytes?
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

16. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Why are all ionic compounds electrolytes?
An electrolyte is a compound that conducts an electric current when it is in an aqueous solution or in the molten state.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

17. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
All ionic compounds are electrolytes because they dissociate into ions.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

18. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
In order for the bulb to light, an electric current must flow between the two electrodes that are immersed in the solution.
To (+) electrode
To (–) electrode
Sodium chloride, a strong electrolyte, is nearly 100% dissociated into ions in water.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

19. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
In order for the bulb to light, an electric current must flow between the two electrodes that are immersed in the solution.
To (+) electrode
To (–) electrode
Mercury(II) chloride, a weak electrolyte, is only partially dissociated in water.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

20. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
In order for the bulb to light, an electric current must flow between the two electrodes that are immersed in the solution.
To (+) electrode
To (–) electrode
Glucose, a nonelectrolyte, does not dissociate in water.
A nonelectrolyte is a compound that does not conduct an electric current in either an aqueous solution or the molten state.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

21. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Some polar molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes in the pure state but become electrolytes when they dissolve in water.
This change occurs because such compounds ionize in solution.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

22. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Some polar molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes in the pure state but become electrolytes when they dissolve in water.
For example, ammonia (NH3(g)) is not an electrolyte in the pure state.
Yet an aqueous solution of ammonia conducts an electric current because ammonium ions (NH4+) and hydroxide ions (OH–) form when ammonia dissolves in water.
NH3(g) + H2O(l)  NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

23. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Not all electrolytes conduct electric current to the same degree.
In a solution that contains a strong electrolyte, all or nearly all of the solute exists as ions.
A weak electrolyte conducts an electric current poorly because only a fraction of the solute in the solution exists as ions.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

24. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Your cells use electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium ions, to carry electrical impulses across themselves and to other cells.
An electrolyte imbalance can occur if you become dehydrated.
When you exercise, you can lose water and electrolytes from your body through perspiration.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

25. CHEMISTRY & YOU
Pickles contain table salt. Why can electric current flow through a pickle, causing it to glow?
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

26. CHEMISTRY & YOU
Pickles contain table salt. Why can electric current flow through a pickle, causing it to glow?
Electrolytes conduct an electric current when they are in an aqueous solution. Table salt, or NaCl, is a strong electrolyte. The water and salt in the pickle form a solution that conducts an electric current. The electric current causes the pickle to glow.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

27. Explain why you must be extremely careful when using electricity near a swimming pool.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

28. Explain why you must be extremely careful when using electricity near a swimming pool.
The chlorinated water in a swimming pool is a solution that can conduct an electric current. If a current is introduced into the water, any swimmers could be shocked.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

29. Why do hydrates easily lose and regain water?
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

30. Hydrates
The water contained in a crystal is called the water of hydration or water of crystallization.
A compound that contains water of hydration is called a hydrate.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

31. Hydrates
The forces holding the water molecules in hydrates are not very strong, so the water is easily lost and regained.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

32. Hydrates
The forces holding the water molecules in hydrates are not very strong, so the water is easily lost and regained.
A substance that is anhydrous does not contain water.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

33. CuSO45H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)
Hydrates
CuSO45H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)
– heat
+ heat
After a time, much of the blue hydrate has been converted to white anhydrous CuSO4.
Heating of a sample of blue CuSO45H2O begins.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

34. Hydrates
A piece of filter paper that has been dipped in an aqueous solution of cobalt(II) chloride and then dried is blue in color (anhydrous CoCl2).
When the paper is exposed to moist air, it turns pink because of the formation of the hydrate cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate (CoCl26H2O).
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

35. Hydrates
Each hydrate contains a fixed quantity of water and has a definite composition.
Some Common Hydrates
Formula
Chemical name
Common name
MgSO47H2O
Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Epsom salt
Ba(OH)28H2O
Barium hydroxide octahydrate
CaCl22H2O
Calcium chloride dihydrate
CuSO45H2O
Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
Blue vitriol
Na2SO410H2O
Sodium sulfate decahydrate
Glauber’s salt
KAl(SO4)212H2O
Potassium aluminum sulfate dodecahydrate
Alum
Na2B4O710H2O
Sodium tetraborate decahydrate
Borax
FeSO47H2O
Iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate
Green vitriol
H2SO4H2O
Sulfuric acid hydrate (mp 8.6oC)
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

36. To determine what percent by mass of a hydrate is water:
Hydrates
To determine what percent by mass of a hydrate is water:
First determine the mass of water in one mole of hydrate.
Then determine the molar mass of the hydrate.
The percent by mass of water can be calculated using the following equation:
Percent by mass H2O =  100%
mass of water
mass of hydrate
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

37. Efflorescent Hydrates
The water molecules in hydrates are held by weak forces, so hydrates often have an appreciable vapor pressure.
If a hydrate has a vapor pressure higher than the pressure of water vapor in the air, the hydrate will lose its water of hydration, or effloresce.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

38. Hydrates
Hygroscopic Hydrates
Hydrated ionic compounds that have low vapor pressure remove water from moist air to form higher hydrates.
These hydrates and other compounds that remove moisture from air are called hygroscopic.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

39. Hydrates
Hygroscopic Hydrates
Calcium chloride monohydrate spontaneously absorbs a second molecule of water when exposed to moist air.
Calcium chloride is used as a desiccant in the laboratory.
A desiccant is a substance used to absorb moisture from the air and create a dry atmosphere.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

40. Finding the Percent by Mass of Water in a Hydrate
Sample Problem 15.1
Finding the Percent by Mass of Water in a Hydrate
Calculate the percent by mass of water in washing soda, sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO310H2O).
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

41. Analyze List the known and the unknown.
Sample Problem 15.1
Analyze List the known and the unknown. 1
To determine the percent by mass, divide the mass of water in one mole of the hydrate by the molar mass of the hydrate and multiply by 100%.
KNOWN
formula of hydrate = Na2CO310H2O
UNKNOWN
percent H2O = ? %
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

42. mass of 10 mol H2O = 10[(2  1.0 g) + 16.0 g] = 180.0 g
Sample Problem 15.1
Calculate Solve for the unknown. 2
Determine the mass of 10 mol of water.
mass of 10 mol H2O = 10[(2  1.0 g) g] = g
For every 1 mol of Na2CO310H2O, there are 10 mol of H2O.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

43. Calculate Solve for the unknown.
Sample Problem 15.1
Calculate Solve for the unknown. 2
Determine the mass of 1 mol of the hydrated compound.
= (2  23.0 g) g + (3  16.0 g) g
= g
molar mass of Na2CO310H2O
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

44. Calculate Solve for the unknown.
Sample Problem 15.1
Calculate Solve for the unknown. 2
Calculate the percent by mass of water in the hydrate.
mass of water
mass of hydrate
percent by mass H2O =  100%
180.0 g
286.0 g
=  100%
= 62.94%
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

45. Evaluate Does the result make sense?
Sample Problem 15.1 3
Evaluate Does the result make sense?
The mass of the water accounts for more than half the molar mass of the compound.
So, a percentage greater than 50% is expected.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

46. Deliquescent Compounds
Hydrates
Deliquescent Compounds
Some compounds are so hygroscopic that they become wet when exposed to normally moist air.
These compounds are deliquescent, which means that they remove sufficient water from the air to dissolve completely and form solutions.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

47. Pellets of sodium hydroxide are deliquescent.
Hydrates
Pellets of sodium hydroxide are deliquescent.
For this reason, containers of NaOH should always be tightly stoppered.
The solution formed by a deliquescent substance has a lower vapor pressure than that of the water in the air.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

48. Calculate the percent by mass of water in epsom salt, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO47H2O).
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

49. Calculate the percent by mass of water in epsom salt, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO47H2O).
mass of H2O = 7  ( 2  1.0 g g) = g
= 24.3 g g + (4  16.0 g) g
= g
molar mass of
MgSO47H2O
126.0 g
246.4 g
percent by mass H2O =  100% = 51.14%
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

50. Key Concepts and Key Equation
Substances that dissolve most readily in water include ionic compounds and polar covalent compounds.
All ionic compounds are electrolytes because they dissociate into ions.
The forces holding the water molecules in hydrates are not very strong, so the water is easily lost and regained.
mass of water
mass of hydrate
percent by mass H2O =  100%
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

51. aqueous solution: water that contains dissolved substances
Glossary Terms
aqueous solution: water that contains dissolved substances
solvent: the dissolving medium in a solution
solute: dissolved particles in a solution
solvation: a process that occurs when an ionic solute dissolves; in solution, solvent molecules surround the positive and negative ions
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

52. Glossary Terms
electrolyte: a compound that conducts an electric current when it is in an aqueous solution or in the molten state; all ionic compounds are electrolytes, but most covalent compounds are not
nonelectrolyte: a compound that does not conduct an electric current in aqueous solution or in the molten state
strong electrolyte: a solution in which a large portion of the solute exists as ions
weak electrolyte: a solution that conducts electricity poorly because only a fraction of the solute exists as ions
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

53. anhydrous: a substance that does not contain water
Glossary Terms
water of hydration: water molecules that are an integral part of a crystal structure
hydrate: a compound that has a specific number of water molecules bound to each formula unit
anhydrous: a substance that does not contain water
effloresce: to lose water of hydration; the process occurs when the hydrate has a vapor pressure higher than that of water vapor in the air
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

54. desiccant: a hygroscopic substance used as a drying agent
Glossary Terms
hygroscopic: a term describing salts and other compounds that remove moisture from the air
desiccant: a hygroscopic substance used as a drying agent
deliquescent: describes a substance that removes sufficient water from the air to form a solution; the solution formed has a lower vapor pressure than that of the water in the air
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

55. Bonding and Interactions
BIG IDEA
Bonding and Interactions
Ionic compounds and polar covalent compounds dissolve most readily in water to form aqueous solutions.
Ionic compounds dissolve in water when the polar water molecules attract the ions of the solute, causing the individual solute ions to break away from the ionic crystal.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

56. END OF 15.2
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.