1. Almen sproglig viden og metode (General Linguistics)
Pieter Bruegel, Tower of Babel (1563)
Introduction to
the
Study of
Grammar
1: Morphology
CLM, Engelsk tt

2. The components of language study
Sound
Meaning
Grammar
Lexicon
Morphology
Syntax
Phonetics
Phonology
Pragmatics
Semantics

3. The components of language
Sound
Meaning
A language is a system of cognitive procedures for
Assigning a Meaning to a sequence of Sounds
- Producing a sequence of Sounds to express a Meaning

4. A Model of the Language Faculty
Sound
Structure
Meaning
a perceptual
interface
for associating
sound with
meaning
Grammar
a computational
system
an interpretive
interface
an articulatory
interface
a cognitive
interface
I-language is a computational module that assigns structure to utterances – to strings of sound received through the perceptual interface to yield as output a representation with semantic content to the interpreting interface to account for utterance understanding, and to cognitive content to yield an output of instructions for articulation to account for utterance production.
The representations generated by I-language in either direction are understood to be representations of linguistic structure – phonetic, morphological, syntactic and semantic. In addition a separate module of lexical memory is assumed as one of the cognitive resources that I-language needs to access.
The I-language procedures are quite mechanical, extremely fast and outside conscious control, whereas lexical look-up is a bit more tricky to account for. It is likely to be subject to some form of conscious control. I’ll make a small detour on this last point before returning to the account of I-language, since it is directly relevant to interpreting.
One of the hot topics of cognitive science in general and cognitive approaches to language studies in particular is the question of modularization. I can’t here go into this in much detail, but one issue is vital in order to appreciate what cognitive science is trying to do.
Lexicon

5. Grammar Morphology: the structure of words
Syntax: the structure of sentences

6. Rules Morphology describes the rules by which morphemes combine
into words
Syntax describes the rules by
which words combine into
sentences

7. Morphemes – the smallest units of meaning
To Tom, I’m unexciting, uninteresting, and unattractive
What kind of a relationship is that?
An unrelationship!

8. Morphology, terms Word: Lexeme, word-form, grammatical word
- The shooter’s shots shot out like shooting stars
Morpheme: Bound and free
Affix: prefix, suffix
- The upshot of the shooting was upsetting
Root, stem, base

9. Lexemes Word-forms Grammatical words
shoot
shooting
shot
shoots
shooting (gerund)
shooting (pres. ptc.)
shot (prf.ptc)
shot (past)
shoots (pres)
shoot (pres)
SHOOT (V)
shots’ (gen. pl)
shot’s (gen. sg.)
shots (pl)
shot (sg)
shot
shots
SHOT (N)
shooter (sg)
shooters’ (gen. pl)
shooter’s (gen. sg)
shooters (pl)
shooter
shooters
SHOOTER (N)

10. Free and Bound Morphemes
So I’m hayving as much as I can
Mommy said to behave

11. Affixes: prefix and suffix
touch
Root s
Suffix
Prefix un
Suffix
able

12. Root, base, stem un s able touch
Root = irreducible kernel of a word-form
Base = reducible kernel of a word-form to which any affix may be added
Stem = base when added affixes are inflectional

13. Morphology, types Inflectional: turns a lexeme into a grammatical word
Ex.: BOY + {Plural}  boys || GO + {PAST}  went
Derivational: turns a lexeme into another lexeme
Class-maintaining: -dom: king (N) + dom = kingdom (N)
Class-changing: -ly: king (N) + -ly = kingly (A)
Conversion: love (N) - love (V)

14. Derivational Morphology
- what does that make a humanitarian?
That’s strange. If a vegetarian is someone who eats vegetables-

15. Hierarchical struc- ture of words
Adverb
stem
suffix
Adjective
stem
suffix
Adjective
stem
Prefix
Adjective
stem
suffix
Noun
root
He went about the job very un
system
atic al ly

16. Making new words out of old
Arachis hypogeae (peanut) + butyr(o) (butter) + phobia (fear)

17. Inflectional Categories and Morphology (1)
Nouns
Category
Members
Forms
{-Ø | -s}
Number
{Singular | Plural}
{-Ø | -s}
Case
{Nominative | Genitive}
Personal
pronouns
Person
{First | Second | Third}
{I | you | he, she, it}
Case
{he, she | him, her |
his, her(s), its}
{Nominative | Accusative |
Genitive}

18. Inflectional Categories and Morphology (2)
Verbs
Category
Members
Forms
{{-Ø | -s} | -ed}
Tense
{Present | Past}
{ -s | -Ø}
Mood*
{Indicative| Subjunctive}
{-Ø | have + -en}
{-Ø | be + -ing}
Aspect
{- | Perfect}
{- | Progressive}
{-Ø | be + -en}
Voice
{Active| Passive}
* Modality is a category with free forms as members:
{can, may, must, shall, will, ought (to)}
{-Ø | -s}
Number
{Singular | Plural}
Person
{First | Second | Third}
{-Ø | -Ø | -s}
(Agreeing categories)

19. Inflectional Categories and Morphology (3)
Adjectives
Category
Members
Forms
Comparison
(Grading)
{Positive | Comparative | Superlative}
{-Ø | -er | -est}

20. Typology of English Morphemes
Bound
Free
Affix
Root
-ceive
-mit
-fer
Open Class
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Closed Class
Conjunctions
Prepositions
Articles
Pronouns
Auxiliaries
Derivational
Inflectional
Suffix
-ing, -er, -s
-s, -est, -’s
-en
-ed
Prefix
pre-
un-
con-
etc.
Suffix
-ly
-ist
-ment

21. Compounds
Antelope?
- or
- an eloping ant!

22. Compounds - A lexeme that contains more than one root
Three main types, depending on meaning:
Endocentric: beehive (a kind of hive), armchair (a kind of chair)
Appositional: maidservant (both a maid and a servant)
Exocentric: redskin (not a kind of skin), highbrow (not a kind of brow)
It is always the last root that determines classmembership:
- red (A) + skin (N)  N

23. That’s all for now!