1. Herbivores on Phragmites in North America
Lisa Tewksbury, Richard Casagrande, Bernd Blossey, and Geoff Balme

2. Introduction
Over the past several decades, Phragmites australis populations in North America have dramatically increased in wetlands, particularly along the Atlantic Coast. All current control methods produce only partial or short-term control. Biological control has been proposed as a long-term control measure for P. australis. Prior to beginning a biological control program for P. australis it is important to document which insect herbivores are currently utilizing P. australis in the Northeast.
Methods
We initiated an extensive review of the literature, and conducted field surveys in Rhode Island and New York. In Rhode Island stem samples were collected from eight P. australis sites every two weeks from June to September, We dissected stems, recorded insects present and insect damage, and insects were reared to adults for identification.

3. Summary
A table of insect herbivores known to feed on P. australis is provided as an important resource prior to serious consideration of biological control (Table 1). According to our literature review and field survey, there are 26 insect herbivore species known to feed on Phragmites australis in North America; 16 are recent introductions, five species are of unknown status, and only five are native. Only the Yuma skipper, Ochlodes yuma (Edwards), a species distributed throughout the western United States, and a gall midge, Calamomyia phragmites Felt, are considered native and monophagous on P. australis. The sixteen recent introductions include the moth Rhizedra lutosa (Hübner), chloropid gall-inducing flies in the genus Lipara, the gall midge Lasioptera hungarica (Möhn), a wasp, Tetramesa phragmitis (Erdös), and the rice grain gall midge Giraudiella inclusa (Frauenfeld).

4. Poanes viator (Edwards) Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae
Adult and larva
Common Name: broad-winged skipper
Native to North America
Host Plants: Zizania aquatica L., wild rice, and P. australis

5. Dicranoctetes saccharella (Busch) Lepidoptera: Elachistidae
Lasioptera hungarica (Möhn) Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Larvae with fungal mycelium, and adult midge

6. Phytophagous Insects, Mites, and Pathogens Recorded on
TABLE 1
Phytophagous Insects, Mites, and Pathogens Recorded on
Phragmites australis
in North America
Species
Larval feeding habit a
Native
Specificity b
ACARI Tarsonemidae
Steneotarsonemus phragmitidis
(Schlechtendal)
Leaf sheaths No M
DIPTERA
Agro
myzidae
Cerodontha incisa
(Meigen)
Leaf mines U P
Cecidomyiidae
Calamomyia phragmites
Felt
Stem galls
Yes
Giraudiella inclusa
(Frauenfeld)
Stems
Lasioptera hungarica
(Möhn)
Chloropidae
Oscinella frit
(Linnaeus)
Leave s
Lipara similis
Schiner
Lipara rufitarsis
Loew
Lipara pullitarsis
Doskocil&Chvála
Lipara lucens
Meigen
Dolichopodidae
Thrypticus
sp. Loew
HOMOPTERA
Aphididae
Hyal
opterus pruni
(Geoffr.)
Leaves O
Coccidae
Eriopeltis festucae
(Fonscolombe)
Pseudococcidae

7. Table 1 Continued Chaetococcus phragmitis (Marchal)
Stems, leaf sheaths No O
HYMENOPTERA Eurytomidae
Tetramesa phragmitis
(Erdös)
Stems M
LEPIDOPTERA
Elachistidae
Dicranoctetes saccharella
(Busch)
Leaf blotch mines
Yes P
Hesperiidae
Ochlodes yuma
(Edwards)
Leaves
Poanes viator
Crambidae
Sclerocona acutellus
(Eversmann) U
Noctuidae
Apamea oph
iogramma
(Esper)
Apamea unanimis
(Hübner)
Rhizedra lutosa
Stems, rhizomes
Hydraecia micacea
Leucania linita
Guenée
Simyra henrici
Grote
THYSANOPTERA Phlaeothripidae
Uni
dentified thrips
Fungi
Alternaria
sp.
Leaves, stems a
U = unknown b
Specificity as recorded in the literature (M = monophagous, O = oligophagous, P = polyphagous, U =
unknown).

8. Giraudiella inclusa (Frauenfeld) Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Adult midge and galls on inside of shoot

9. Rhizedra lutosa (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Adult, eggs, larva, and larval feeding damage to rhizome
First found in North America in 1988 in a blacklight trap in New Jersey
Has also been found in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, and Ohio
Larvae feed first on emerging shoots, and then mine rhizomes
Infested shoots dry out, causing blanching of the leaves
Larvae leave rhizomes to pupate in the soil, which limits R. lutosa to drier reed stands

10. Lipara similis Schiner Diptera: Chloropidae
Larva and stem damage
Lipara similis was first reported in 1958 as an import interception in North America (Sabrosky, 1958)
There are three species of chloropid gall-inducing flies in the genus Lipara in North America: Lipara similis, Lipara rufitarsis, and Lipara lucens
Lipara similis was found to be the most abundant of the three, during stem surveys in Rhode Island
Larvae bore into the tip of the shoot in the spring, and kill the apical meristem.
Lipara flies effectively stunt shoot growth of infected P. australis stems, and prevent them from flowering

11. Tetramesa phragmitis (Erdos) Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae
Larvae and feeding marks on inside of shoot
Reference:Tewksbury, L., Casagrande, R., Blossey, B., Häfliger, P., Schwarzländer, M Potential for Biological Control of Phragmites australis in North America. Biological Control. 23(2):