1. Bully

2. Learning and Memory

3. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Russia
What is learning?
Classical Conditioning: A learning process in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
Pavlov’s doggy Again . . .

4. Classical Conditioning
Pavlov began his experiments by ringing a tuning fork and then immediately placing some meat powder on the dogs tongue. He chose the tuning fork because it was a neutral stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response.

5. Classical Conditioning
Well, after a few times the dog begins to salivate by merely hearing the sound, even if there was no food within it’s sight.
Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus (here, the tuning fork) can cause a formerly unrelated response.
This occurs if it is presented regularly just before the stimulus (here, the food) that normally brings about a response (here, salivation.)

6. Classical Conditioning
According to Pavlov, every human or animal has a set of unconditional or involuntary responses.
Such responses include blushing, shivering, being startled, and salivating.
In this experiment, food was the unconditional stimulus.
Unconditional Stimulus (UCS): An event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training.

7. Classical Conditioning
A few other important things:
Unconditioned Response (UCR): An organism’s automatic (or neutral) reaction to a stimulus. (Example = salivation).
Under normal conditions, the sound of a tuning fork would not cause salivation. The dog had to be taught, or conditioned to associate this sound with food.
An ordinarily neutral event that, after training, leads to a response such as salivation is termed a conditioned stimulus.

8. Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
The salivation that is caused by the tuning fork is called a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.

9. Classical Conditioning

10. Generalization and Discrimination
In the same set of experiments, Pavlov also studied the process of generalization and discrimination.
Generalization: Responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli.
Example: When Pavlov attempted to train the dog to salivate at the sight of a circle…it worked after multiple trials!
The dog had generalized it’s response to include a similar stimulus.

11. Generalization and Discrimination
Pavlov was later able to do the opposite, teaching the dog to respond only to the circle by always pairing meat powder with the circle but never pairing it with a different object like an oval.
In doing this, he taught his dog discrimination.
Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli.

12. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
A classically conditioned response, like any other behavior, is subject to change.
Pavlov discovered that if he stopped presenting food after the sound of the tuning fork, the sound gradually lost its effect on the dog.
After he repeatedly struck the tuning fork without giving food, the dog no longer associated the sound with the arrival of food – the sound of the tuning fork no longer caused the salivation response.

13. Hahahaha

14. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Pavlov called this effect extinction!
Extinction: The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Yet, even though the conditioned response has been extinguished, it does not mean that the CR has been completely unlearned.
Whaaaaaaa?
Spontaneous Recovery!
Yup, you eventually see the object again and get a response…Ask me if confused, I’ll explain!

15. Operant Conditioning
Ok, so, suppose you have a dinosaur! Yes a dinosaur!
Your dinosaur is wandering around the neighborhood, sniffing trees, checking garbage cans, and looking for a squirrel to chase.
A kind neighbor sees the dinosaur and tosses a bone out of the kitchen door to it.
The next day the dinosaur is likely to stop at the same door on it’s rounds. Once again your neighbor produces another bone, so the dinosaur becomes a regular visitor!
Why?

16. Operant Conditioning Well I’ll tell ya why! Hold your horses!
Well, ummm, see, there’s this, well, ummm, thing called, like, operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning: Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases and decreases in occurrence.
Operant = operates due to a change yo.

17. Reinforcement
Reinforcement: Stimulus or event follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.
Examples of reinforcers:
Social Approval
Money
Extra privilages
Giving a dog a treat when it shakes your hand.

18. Primary and Secondary Reinforcer’s
Primary Reinforcer: Stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water.
Secondary Reinforcer: Stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer.

19. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement.
Variable-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement.

20. Shaping and Chaining What is Shaping?
Shaping: A technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward.
In other words, positive reinforcement is used to “sculpt” new responses out of the old, possibly negative, ones.
Is anyone confused?

21. Shaping and Chaining
Response Chain: Learned Reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next.
Examples: Swimming, Basketball, Lacrosse, Baseball, Hockey, Football, etc.

22. One Example of a Response Chain

23. One More Example of a Response Chain!

24. Aversive Control Funny Fishies!
Aversive Control: Process of Influencing behavior by means of some form of “unpleasant” stimuli!
Ouch! Ouch! Ouch!

25. Negative Reinforcement
In the concept of negative reinforcement, a painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed. The removal of unpleasant consequences increases the frequency of a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs.

26. Cognitive Learning
Cognitive Learning focuses on how information is obtained, processed, and organized. Such learning is concerned with the mental process involved in learning. Latent Learning and Learned Helplessness are examples of cognitive learning.
Cognitive Learning: Form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation.

27. Cognitive Learning Examples:
1. Latent Learning. Latent learning is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior at the time of the learning. Although the learning typically occurs in the absence of a reinforcer, it may not be demonstrated until the reinforcer appears.
Example: Have you ever had to locate a building or a street in a section of Durham that you are unfamiliar with? You may have been through that section of town before and remember details such as an unusual sign or building. Remembering these details may have helped you find the building or street you were looking for. In other words, you learned some details you were not intending to.

28. Cognitive Learning Examples:
2. Learned Helplessness. Learned helplessness is a condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable.
Example: You do poorly on a math test the first time you try and decide it was because you had not studied enough. The next test, you do poorly again and decide it was because you did not feel well. On the third test, you once again score poorly…You give up and decide that you “are just dumb,” giving up on math.

29. Modeling and Behavior Modification
Wait….No…The other kind of modeling!
Modeling: Learning by imitating others; copying behavior!
This is how the majority of people learn how to act in new situations (sports, concerts, etc.)

30. Modeling and Behavior Modification
The term “behavior modification” often appears in magazine articles describing research on changing people’s behavior through drugs, “mind control,” or even brain surgery.
In fact, it is none of these things.
Behavior Modification: Refers to the systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings.
Example: Giving your little brother a quarter to go away!

31. Social Learning
Social learning: Learning through viewing other people and the way that they behave in society.
Example: Britney Spears has 3-4 kids by different guys. Little girls who buy her records and love her start having babies and the pre-teen pregnancy rate rises.