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Gender stereotyping in schools – Young people and career choices
Ronald McQuaid and Sue Bond Employment Research Institute Napier University, Edinburgh WES Conference, Aberdeen, September 2007
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Background Sex Discrimination Act 1975
Pay differentials persist (usual suggestions – flexibility, caring responsibilities, productivity etc.) Causes and consequences of occupational segregation e.g. Miller et al. (2004) Occupational segregation, gender gaps and skill gaps; Thomson et al. (2005) Jobs for the boys and the girls: promoting a smart, successful and equal Scotland, EOC. Women and Work Commission (2006) Shaping a Fairer Future Careers education should give “young people a real understanding of the pay, rewards and challenges of occupations, particularly those not traditionally taken up by their gender”
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Background Are females attracted to low pay occupations or
are predominantly female occupations low paid? Opposite for males? In any case, career choice is important. So what influences career choice among year school pupils?
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Outline 1. Methodology 2. Pupil’s views on:
Gender Stereotyping of Careers, Perceptions of their Own Suitability for Jobs, Links Between Pupil’s Gender Stereotyping and Job Suitability, Job Characteristics and Sectors of Work, Career and Job Choices, and 3. Conclusions
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Research Methodology Stage One: Background
Stage Two: Survey (2148 pupils) Stage Three: Case Study Interviews (82 pupils in 4 schools) Stage One: Background – completed May 2003 Literature Review Secondary Analysis of surveys Stage Two: Survey – fieldwork completed July 2003 Self-completion survey of over 2000 S2/S3 pupils in state schools in West Lothian and Edinburgh 7 schools in West Lothian (Total response: 676= Response Rate 27% of all pupils in these schools) 8 schools in Edinburgh (total response: 1472= Response Rate 67% of all pupils in these schools) Stage Three: Case Studies – most of fieldwork complete December 2003 2 school in West Lothian and 2 schools in Edinburgh Interviews with over 80 pupils in total – first completed survey and then an interview schedule administered by a careers advisor Interviews with teachers, careers advisors and employers
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Gender Stereotyping of careers
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Outline
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Gender Stereotyping of Jobs (survey)
% of boys and girls saying ‘Both’ men and women suited for these jobs Boys Girls Total Armed Forces 41% 63% 51% Care Asst. 39% 49% 44% Clerk/Office Asst. 74% 78% 76% Computer/Software Dsr 65% 75% 70% Hairdresser/Barber 63% 78% 70% Labourer 34% 47% 41% Lawyer/Solicitor 84% 92% 88% Manager 75% 91% 83% Nurse 42% 56% 49% Shop Worker 83% 90% 87% Teacher 81% 88% 85% Waiter/Waitress 83% 87% 85% GP/Doctor 79% 90% 83% Police Officer 80% 91% 86% Engineer 21% 34% 27% Lorry Driver 20% 29% 25% Gender Stereotyping List of 17 jobs, asked ‘Who do you think is best suited to these jobs?’ Options: ‘Women’, ‘Men’, ‘Both’ How list of 17 jobs selected Table: % of pupils who thought ‘Both’ men and women suited to selected jobs – indicating ‘Both’ suggests less stereotyping Findings There were 7 jobs where over 80% of pupils thought ‘Both’ were suited: Lawyer/Solicitor; Manager; Shop Worker; Teacher; and Waiter/Waitress. Among the more persistently stereotyped jobs also included: Plumber/Electrician; Labourer; Armed Forces; Nurse and Care Assistant.
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Gender Stereotyping of Jobs (survey)
80% of pupils thought ‘both’ men and women suited to: GP/Doctor; Police Officer; Lawyer/Solicitor; Manager; Shop Worker; Teacher; Waiter/Waitress Less than 50% of pupils thought ‘both’ suited to: Engineer; Nurse; Care Assistant; Labourer; Lorry Driver; Plumber/Electrician
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Who were less stereotyping
Who were less stereotyping? Linear Regression Model (Forward Selection Method) Independent variables that were significant in the model Standardised Coefficient B) Sig. Demographic characteristic: Sex (female) (dummy) Achievement and Aspirations: Achievement in English (F/E/Credit) Achievement and Aspirations: Chemistry chosen to study (dummy) Attitude: ‘Man’s job to earn money…’ Job Characteristic: ‘Earn a lot of money’ Adjusted R Square=.18 Model significance = .000 (i.e. highly significant) Variables that were 5% significant were entered into the model. Independent variables excluded from the model: Demographic Characteristics: Ethnicity (non-white); Year (S3); Achievement and Aspirations: Achievement in Maths (F/E/Credit); ‘Want to go to University’; Physics chosen to study; Biology chosen to study; Computing chosen to study; Socio-economic and family characteristics: Single Parent Household; Not Owner Occupier; Father Unemployed; Social Inclusion Partnership Area; Area (Edinburgh); Careers Advice: Would use Careers for Advice; Would use Parents for Advice; Job Characteristics: ‘Helping others’; ‘Dealing with the public’; ‘Involves interests’; ‘Working with technology’; ‘Involves a lot of travel’; ‘Working outdoors’; ‘Being Creative’; ‘Good promotion prospects’; ‘Plenty of opportunities for further training’; ‘Means you can live in Edinburgh and the Lothians’; ‘Will fit in well with having a family’; ‘Allows you to work flexible hours’.
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Gender Stereotyping of Jobs (Survey)
Explanations Gender Level of Achievement Gender Stereotyping Investigated factors associated with gender stereotyping Gender Levels of Achievement Higher levels of achievement associated with less gender stereotyping of jobs and occupations to some extent (less so in regression models) However, no obvious link with: Ethnicity socio-economic characteristics (eg. single parent; parent unemployed; owner occupation; SIP area). NOTE: imperfect measures of deprivation and social class - doesn’t mean there isn’t a relationship necessarily, but these measures didn’t show it. West Lothian and Edinburgh
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Gender Stereotyping of Jobs (Interviews)
Gender Characteristic/Aptitude Interest Mostly men/women do these jobs ‘Man’s’ job/’woman’s’ job Unsure If pupils had responded that any of the jobs is best suited to ‘men’ or ‘women’ in the survey, they were then asked ‘why are men/women best suited?’ and ‘why aren’t men/women suited?’ Answers generally fell into one of five categories Majority of responses involved character/aptitude Note: difficult to quantify precisely since pupils could give a number of reasons and these overlapped. Next slide going to look specifically at characteristics/aptitudes mentioned
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Why women are well suited Why men are not as well suited
NURSE Gender Characteristics/aptitudes Why women are well suited “More caring, better at talking to people” (boy) “More patient than men. Better at caring for others” (boy) “As mothers, women are naturally more caring and understanding” (girl) Why men are not as well suited “Men have little patience and can’t be bothered to look after others” (boy) “Men are not as caring” (girl) Nurse Why women well suited revolved around: caring; communication; helping Why men not well suited revolved around: not as caring, not as good at helping
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Why women are not as well suited
ENGINEER Gender Characteristics/aptitudes Why Men are well suited “Need to be strong…and men are stronger” (girl) “Better at more technical things” (girl) “Men don’t mind getting their hands dirty and working with tools” (boy) [“Men are mechanics” (boy)] Why women are not as well suited “Jobs would be too hard for them physically” (boy) “Don’t like to get dirty” (girl) “Some women do not know a lot about cars” (boy) Engineer Why men well suited: strength; technical/working with hands; dirty Why women not well suited: lack of strength; don’t like dirt; less knowledgeable/technical. Misunderstanding about the job apparent: Confusion with mechanic Perception of dirt
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Own Suitability for Jobs
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Own Suitability for Jobs (Survey)
Explanations Gender Level of Achievement Ethnicity Job Suitability Investigated what factors were associated with pupils perceptions of their suitability for jobs Gender Levels of Achievement in Maths and English Higher levels of achievement – associated with higher SOC jobs: professionals, associate profesional etc. Ethnicity- white v non-white (note: small numbers in survey, could not disaggregate) Non-whites more suited to: Computer/Software Designer; Engineer; GP/Doctor; Lawyer/Solicitor Non-whites less suited to: Waiter/Waitress Socio-economic characteristics Relatively little impact in regression models. Area No differences between West Lothian and Edinburgh when other factors taken into account
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Pupil Perceptions of their own suitability for Jobs
**significant to 99% level *significant to 95% level
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Pupil Perceptions of their suitability for Jobs by Ethnic Background
Outline
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Linking Gender Stereotyping of Jobs With Job Suitability (Survey)
Within Gender Correlations GIRLS who thought ‘both’ genders were suited for specific jobs and also felt they were more personally suited to that job: Armed Forces; Computer/Software Designer; Engineer; Labourer; Manager; Lorry Driver; Plumber/Electrician; Police Officer Correlations show if one variable is related to another (in a linear relationship). Note: Used ‘both’ because for many jobs those who don’t say ‘both’ invariably say the gender that is most associated with that job. Only for a small number of jobs, eg. GP/doctor, lawyer/solicitor, do you get a mix of pupils saying most suited to ‘men’ and ‘women. Problem: can’t tell whether gender stereotyping of jobs impacts on perceptions of suitability or the other way around. Findings: show girls who responded that both men and women suited to ‘male’ jobs, were more likely to perceive themselves to be more suited to these jobs. Boys who responded that both suited to ‘female’ jobs were more likely to perceived themselves to be more suited to these jobs. BOYS who thought ‘both’ genders were suited for specific jobs and also felt they were more personally suited to that job: Care Assistant; Clerk/Office Asst; Hairdresser/Barber; Nurse; Waiter/Waitress
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Model Dependent variable is: pupils’ rating of how suited they were to do each job (17 jobs) using binary logistic regression Dichotomous variable (‘Very suitable’ or ‘suitable’) or (‘Neither’ suitable nor unsuitable, ‘Not very suitable’, or ‘Not suitable at all’).
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Demographic Characteristics; Achievement and Aspirations;
Socio-economic and family characteristics; Careers Advice; Attitudes; Job Characteristics. si = βXi + γYi + δZi ……+ i
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Link between gender stereotyping and own job suitability
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Correlations: How Suitable Boys and Girls (Separately) thought they were by: if they thought ‘Both’ Men And Women Suitable for Each Occupation (** = 99% sig. * = 95% sig.).
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JOB/INDUSTRIAL CHARACTERISTICS
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Attractiveness of Job/Industrial Characteristics
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ADVICE SOURCES
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First Choice for Advice about Careers
(Survey) Boys Girls Total Mother 28% 51% 40% Father 30% 9% 20% Careers Advisor 23% 23% 23% Internet 6% 5% 5% Guidance Teacher 3% 3% 3% Friends 3% 3% 3% Other Teacher 0.2% 0.6% 0.4% Advice About Careers - first choice for advice Parents most popular, particularly mothers (and especially by girls) Careers next most popular Other sources marginally popular
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Sources of Careers Advice
(Interviews) % Used % Useful Mother 84% 92% Father 78% 84% Guidance Teacher 67% 87% Internet 64% 86% Friends 59% 58% Careers Advisor 44% 94% Advice about Careers - actual use Pupils using a variety of sources Parents most used; Careers Advisor only used by 44% Most sources were rated at least useful, with Careers coming top, shortly followed by Mother. Rise in use of internet and high proportion finding this useful Although nearly 60% used friends, only 58% found it useful (lower than other sources).
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Gender Stereotyping of Career Choice
Summing Up Key Findings Continuity and Change Differences between groups (gender/achievement) Pupils’ lack of knowledge Types of Stereotyping Link between stereotyping and perceptions of suitability Importance of Parents Summing Up Findings CHANGE AND CONTINUITY Change - (A) More girls than boys feeling suited to job that used to be dominated by men (eg. doctor, lawyer) (B) Also some occupations are not stereotyped a much - doctor, lawyer, manager, police, shop worker, teacher, waiter. Continuity - (A) Still big differences for some occupations as to how suited boys and girls think they are - Engineer, Nurse. (B) Also, some jobs still stereotyped - Engineer, Nurse, lorry driver, Plumber/Electrician, Labourer, Armed Forces and Care Assistant. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS Gender - levels of achievement LACK OF KNOWLEDGE About some jobs, tendency to view jobs in particular ways TYPES OF STEREOTYPING Interviews show there are different ways pupils stereotype LINK BETWEEN STEREOTPYING AND SUITABILITY. There is a link, but not sure of direction IMPORTANCE OF PARENTS As source of careers of advice.
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Recommendations -Focus on job characteristics as well as occupations
Recommendations -Focus on job characteristics as well as occupations. -Identify and focus on occupations where stereotyping remains great. -Highlight the changing nature of gender stereotyping in some jobs. -Target lower achievement pupils. -Target boys and girls in separate ways. -Continue challenge of gender roles.
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Gender Stereotyping in Career Choice
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Gender Stereotyping of Jobs
Suitable for male and female Male only Teacher Lorry Driver Waiter/Waitress Armed Forces Lawyer/Solicitor Engineer Police Officer Labourer Manager Plumber/Electrician GP/Doctor Shop Worker Female only Care Assistant Mixed Nurse Hairdresser/Barber Clerk/Office Assistant Computer/Software Designer
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Linking Gender Stereotyping of Jobs With Job Suitability (Survey)
Suitability for Jobs: % of Girls who say they are ‘suitable’ or ‘very suitable’ Boys Girls Engineering 63% 10% Armed Forces 58% 19% Plumber/Electrician 50% 5% Earlier survey findings showed that girls were less likely to stereotype jobs than boys, yet low numbers of girls were still rating themselves as suitable for many ‘male’ jobs.
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Suitability for Jobs (Survey) % of Boys and Girls who say they are
‘suitable’ or ‘very suitable’ Boys Girls Armed Forces 58% 19% Care Asst. 15% 62% Clerk/Office Asst. 31% 52% Computer/Software Dsn 59% 30% Hairdresser/Barber 10% 63% Labourer 29% 8% Lorry Driver 36% 9% Manager 71% 69% Plumber/Electrician 50% 5% Police Officer 52% 40% Shop Worker 37% 56% Teacher 28% 59% Waiter/Waitress 28% 64% Suitability for Jobs List of 17 jobs, pupils asked ‘Even if you wouldn’t want to do a particular job, how suitable do you think you would be for each one?’ Rate on a 5-point scale from: Very Suitable; Suitable; Neither; Not Very Suitable; Not Suitable at all Table presents % of boys and girls who stated either ‘Very suitable’ or ‘Suitable’ for selected occupations. Findings: In some previously male-dominated professions, more girls than boys rated themselves as suitable: GP/Doctor also Lawyer/Solicitor (51% compared to 47%) Many still on traditional lines: Engineer (63% boys; 10% girls); Nursing (11% boys; 57% girls).
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Gender Stereotyping of Jobs (survey)
% of boys and girls saying ‘Both’ men and women suited for these jobs Boys Girls Total GP/Doctor 79% 90% 83% Police Officer 80% 91% 86% Engineer 21% 34% 27% Lorry Driver 20% 29% 25% Gender Stereotyping List of 17 jobs, asked ‘Who do you think is best suited to these jobs?’ Options: ‘Women’, ‘Men’, ‘Both’ How list of 17 jobs selected Table: % of pupils who thought ‘Both’ men and women suited to selected jobs – indicating ‘Both’ suggests less stereotyping Findings There were 7 jobs where over 80% of pupils thought ‘Both’ were suited: Lawyer/Solicitor; Manager; Shop Worker; Teacher; and Waiter/Waitress. Among the more persistently stereotyped jobs also included: Plumber/Electrician; Labourer; Armed Forces; Nurse and Care Assistant.
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