1. Neural Control of Gastrointestinal Function- The Enteric Nervous System The gastrointestinal tract has a nervous system of its own called the enteric nervous system. It lies entirely in the wall of the gut, beginning in the esophagus and extending all way to the anus. This system especially controls gastrointestinal movements and secretion. The enteric nervous system is composed mainly of two plexuses. 1) an outer plexus lying between the longitude and circular muscle layers called myenteric plexus and 2) an inner plexus called submucosal plexus, that lies in the submucosa.

2. The myenteric plexus controls mainly the gastrointestinal movements. The submucosal plexus controls mainly gastrointestinal secretion and local blood flow.

3. Functional Types of Movements in the Gastrointestinal Tract Two types of movements occur in the GIT: 1) propulsive movements, which causes food to move forward along the tract at an appropriate rate to accommodate digestion and absorption, and 2) mixing movements, which keep the intestinal contents thoroughly mixed at all times.

4. Propulsive Movements- Peristalsis The basic propulsive movement of the GIT is peristalsis. A contractile ring appears around the gut and then moves forward. Any material in front of the contractile ring is moved forward. Peristalsis is an inherent property of many syncytial smooth muscle tubes; stimulation at any point can cause a contractile ring to appear in the circular muscle of the gut,and this ring then spreads along tube.

5. Digestion of Carbohydrates

6. Carbohydrate Foods of the Diet Only 3 major sources of carbohydrate exist in normal human diet. They are: Sucrose, which are the disaccharide known popularly as cane sugar. Lactose, which is a disaccharide in milk. Starches, which are large polysaccharides present in almost all nonanimal foods and particularly in the grain. Other carbohydrates ingested to a slight extend are Amylase, glycogen alcohol, lactic acid, pyruvic acid, pectins, dextris, and minor quantity of carbohydrate derivatives in meats. The diet also contains a large quantity of cellulose, which is a carbohydrate.

7. Digestion of Carbohydrates in the mouth and Stomach When food is chewed, it is mixed with saliva, which contains the enzyme ptyalin (an α-amylase) secreted mainly by the parotid glands. The enzyme hydrolyzes starch into disaccharide maltose and other small polymers of glucose. As the food remain in mouth for short time so not more than 5% of all starches that are eaten will become hydrolyzed by the time the food is swallowed. Starch digestion continues in the body and in stomach and there the food becomes mixed with the stomach secretions.

8. There activity of salivary amylase id blocked by the acid of gastric secretion, as the enzyme becomes nonactive in an environment where the pH is below 4.0. Before the food and its saliva do become completely mixed with the gastric sect ration, as much as 30 to 40% of the starches will have been hydrolyzed mainly to maltose.

9. Digestion of Carbohydrates in the Small Intestine The pancreatic secretion, like saliva, contains a large quantity of α-amylase, but is several times powerful. So, within 15-30 minutes after the chyme empties from the stomach into the duodenum and mixes with pancreatic juice, virtually all the starches will have been digested. The starches are almost totally converted into maltose and other very small glucose polymers before passing the duodenum or upper jejunum.

10. Hydrolysis of Disaccharides and Small Glucose Polymers into Monosaccharides by Intestinal Epithelial Enzyme The enterocytes lining the villi of the small intestine contains 4 enzymes: –Lactose, Sucrose, Maltase, and α-dextrinase. –Which are capable of splitting the disaccharide lactose, sucrose, and maltose as well as the other small glucose polymers in to their constituent monosaccharide. Lactose splits into a molecule of galactose. Sucrose splits into a molecule of fructose and a molecule of glucose. Maltose and other small glucose polymers all split into molecules of glucose.

11. Thus, the final products of carbohydrate digestion are all monosaccharides. They are water soluble and are absorbed immediately into the portal blood.

12. Starches Ptyalin (saliva)- 20-40% Pancreatic amylase- 50-80% Maltose and 3 to 9 glucose polymers Maltase and α-dextinase (intestine) Glucose Galactose Lactase (intestine) Lactose Fructose Sucrase (intestine) Sucrose Digestion of Carbohydrates

13. Digestion of Proteins

14. Proteins of the Diet The dietary proteins are chemically long chain peptide linkages. The characteristics of each type of protein are determined by the types of amino acids in the protein molecule and by the arrangement of these amino acids.

15. Digestion of Proteins in the Stomach The stomach juice is acidic, and pepsin, the important peptic enzyme of stomach, is most active at a pH of 2.0 to 3.0 and inactive at a pH above 5.0. Gastric glands secrete a large quantity of hydrochloric acid. This hydrochloric acid is secreted by the parietal (oxyntic) cells in the glands at a pH of about 0.8 but by the time it is mixed with the stomach contents and with the secretions from the nonoxyntic glandular cells of the stomach, the pH averages around 2.0 to 3.0, a highly favorable range of acidity for pepsin activity.

16. One of the important feature of pepsin digestion is its ability to digest the protein collagen. Collagen is major constitute of the intercellular connective tissue of meats. Therefore, for the digestive enzymes of the digestive tract to penetrate meats and digest the meat cellular proteins, it is first necessary that the collagen fibres are digested.

17. Pepsin only initiates the process of protein digestion Providing only 10 to 20% of the total protein digestion to convert the protein to proteoses, peptones, and a few polypeptides. The splitting of protein occurs as a result of hydrolysis at the peptide linkage between amino acids.

18. Digestion of Protein by Pancreatic Secretions Most protein digestion occurs in the upper small intestine, in the duodenum and jejunum, under the influence of proteolytic enzymes from pancreatic secretion. The major proteolytic enzymes are trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypolypeptidase, and proelastase. Both trypsin and chymotrypsin can split protein molecules into small polypeptides. Carboxypolypeptidase then cleaves individual amino acids from carboxyl ends of polypeptides.

19. Proelastase gives rise to elastase that in turn digests the elastin fibers that hold meats together. Only a small percentage of the protein are digested all the way to their constituent amino acids by pancreatic juice. Most remains in dipeptides, tripeptides and some even larger.

20. Digestion of Peptidases in the Enterocytes that line the Small intestinal Villi Enterocytes that line the villi of the duodenum and jejunum, conduct the last digestive stage of protein. These cells have a brush border that consists of hundreds of microvilli projecting from the surface of each cell. In the membrane of each microvilli are multiple peptidase that protrude through the membranes to the exterior, where they come in contact with the intestinal fliuds. 2 types of peptidase enzymes are especially important, aminopolypeptidase and dipeptidases.

21. They succeed in splitting the remaining larger polypeptides into tripeptides and dipeptides and a few all the way to amino acids. Both the amino acids and the dipeptides and tripeptides are then easily transported through the microvillar membrane to the interior of the enterocyte. Finally, inside the cytosol of the enterocyte are multiple other peptidases that are specific for the remaining types of linkages between the amino acids.

22. Within minutes, virtually all the last dipeptides and tripeptides are digested to the final stage of single amino acids; these then pass through the underneath side of the enterocyte into the blood.

23. Proteins Amino acids Polypeptides + Amino acids trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypolypeptidase, proelastase Proteoses Peptones Polypeptides pepsin peptidases Digestion of Proteins

24. Digestion of Fats

25. Fats of the Diet The most abundant fats of the diet are the neutral fats, also known as triglycerides. In usual diet are also small quantities of phospholipids, cholesterol, and cholesterol esters. The phospholipids and cholesterol esters contain fatty acids and therefore can be considered as fats. Cholesterol, is a sterol compound that contains no fatty acids but does exhibits characteristics of fats; it is derived from fats, and it is metabolized similarly to fats. Therefore, cholesterol is considered as a fat.

26. Digestion of Fats in the Intestine A small amount of triglyceride is digested in the stomach by lingual lipase that is secreted by lingual glands in the mouth and swallowed with saliva. The amount of digestion is less and generally unimportant. Instead, essentially all fat digestion occurs in the small intestine.

27. Emulsification of Fat by Bile acids and Lacithin: The first step in fat digestion is to break the fat globules into small sizes so that the water-soluble digestive enzymes can act on the globule surface. The process is called emulsification of the fat, and it is achieved partly by – agitation in the stomach along with the products of stomach digestion but mainly I the duodenum under the influence of bile, the secretion of the liver that does not contain any digestive enzymes.

28. Bile does contain a large quantity of bile saltsas well as the phospholipid lacithin, both of which, but especially lacithin, are extremely important for the emulsification of fats. A major function of bilesalts and lacithin, especially lacithin, in the bile to make the fat globules readily fragmentable by agitation of water in the small bowel.

29. Digestion of Triglycerides by Pancreatic Lipase The most important enzyme for the digestion of triglycerides is pancreatic lipase in the pancreatic juice. This is present in enormous quantity in pancreatic juice, enough to digest within 1 minute all triglycerides that it can reach. In addition, the enterocytes of the small intestine contain an additional small quantity of lipase known as enteric lipase.

30. Digestion of Fats in the Intestine End Products of Fat Digestion: Most of the triglycerides of the diet are split by pancreatic lipase into free fatty acids and 2-monoglycerides.

31. Fat (Bile + Agitation) Emuscified fat Fatty acids and 2- monoglycerides Pancreatic lipase Emulsified Fat Digestion of Fats