1. Physics 105 Physics for Decision Makers: The Global Energy Crisis Fall 2011 Lecture 25 Nuclear Power

2. The Closest Nuclear Reactor to here is about 1.20m 2.200m 3.2 km 4.20 km 5.200 km

3. 185m

5. Structure of the atom neutron proton electron

6. “Fly in the cathedral” Gold atom nuclear radius : 7 X 10 -15 m electron orbit radius: 1.3 X 10 -10 m Atoms are almost all empty space

7. Atomic Bookkeeping   Atomic number = # of protons = # of electrons -> ELEMENT   Atomic mass ~ # neutrons + # of protons 12 C 6 6 protons and electrons 12 nucleons Isotope = element with specific number of neutrons 12 C 6 14 C 6 8 neutrons + 6 protons m p ~ m n ~ 2000 m e

8. Many different isotopes

9. 4 Fundamental Forces ForceStrengthRange Gravity10 -38 infinite Electro- magnetism 10 -2 Infinite Weak10 -6 10 -18 m Strong110 -15 m If gravity is so weak, why is it such an obvious force?

10. Energy Scales   Atomic physics - -Remove one electron from 12 C costs 11 eV (1.8 X 10 -18 Joules)   Chemistry - -Breaking a bond costs ~ 2 eV   Nuclear Physics - -Removing a neutron from 12 C to get 11 C costs 11 MeV -> 10 6 times more energy !!! Nuclear processes have the potential for much more energy per particle

11. Binding Energies

12. Nuclear Energy  Binding Energy  Add a proton and a neutron and get a deuteron  mp = 1.0073 u = 1.67 x 10 -27 kg = 938 MeV/c 2  mn = 1.0087 u = 1.68 x 10 -27 kg = 939 MeV/c 2  md = 2.0141 u = 3.34 x 10 -27 kg = 1874.8 MeV/c 2  mp+mn = 2.0160 so Delta M =2.2 MeV/c 2 + = 1.00+ 1.00 = 1.98

13. An Analogy

14. Nuclear Decay   If a nucleus can emit some particles and lower the energy of the configuration, this will eventually happen… Z, N -> Z-2, N-2 + 4 He 2 if this is less energy… 235 U 92 231 Th 90 4 He 2 + - 1783.87 MeV - 1760.253 MeV- 28.296 MeV - 1788.55 MeV

15. Energy from nuclear physics fission fusion

17. Chain Reaction Exponential growth controlled - nuclear power uncontrolled - nuclear bomb

18. Critical Mass   If there is enough material (critical mass), get an exponential increase and explosion, if less, it peters out…   235 U - critical mass = 52 kg (17 cm sphere)   Note: Uranium needs to be enriched, because natural abundance is 99.3% 238 U and 0.7% 235 U   Use centrifuges for enrichment (current dispute with Iran) - -For 3-5% enrichment (used for power) cannot explode - -20% enrichment - critical mass = 400 kg - ->20% - “highly enriched uranium”   239 Pu - critical mass = 10 kg (10 cm sphere)

19. Building a Bomb   Need to assemble (quickly!) > critical mass “gun type” Conventional explosives “Little boy” Dropped on Hiroshima, Japan Aug. 6, 1945 15 kton TNT equivalent 1% of 64 kg of U fissioned 140,000 dead

22. Fat man design now online…

23. Nuclear Power   CONTROLLED Fission - -Use 3-5% enriched Uranium - -Nuclear explosion is impossible - -Need to control rate of reaction - -Slow neutrons are more likely to cause fission than fast (what is normally emitted) - -Intersperse fuel with moderator (slows neutrons) - -Water is most common moderator - -If temperature goes up, water is less dense - less slow neutrons -> less fission : Negative feedback - -Control rods absorb neutrons - stops fission

24. Ionizing Radiation   Radiation causes damage when particle collides with atom/molecule in your body, ionizing the molecule (remove an electron)  + A -> A + (ionize molecule A) A + + B -> C (molecule A interacts with molecule B to form new compound) - -can kill cells ( can be used to kill cancer cells) - -Can damage DNA - -Leads to cancer - - Danger depends on particle type and energy - -Different penetration depths - -Amount of ionization (damage)

25. Your exposure to radiation   Total ~ 350 mrem/year Maximum permitted dosage OSHA 5 rem (50msv)

26. Intentional exposure   Smoking - -Tobacco has trace radioactive elements - -1 pack per day = 1 rem per year - -Equivalent to 200 chest x-rays per year - -About 25% of lung cancer deaths are attributed to radiation   Flying - -0.5 mrem per hour - -Washington - LA - 2.5 mrem - -Washington- Australia - 10 mrem - -A pilot/flight attendant making 5 rts per month -> 1 rem/yr

27. Nuclear power accidents   Chernobyl, Ukraine (Soviet Union) - -26 April 1986 reactor suffered steam explosion and meltdown - -A safety test gone bad… - -Done by inexperienced night shift “It was like airplane pilots experimenting with the engines in flight” - -Intentionally removed control rods - -Led to runaway reaction - -Went to 30 GW (1 GW reactor) and explosion -total radiation released - 100 Megacuries!! - - Evacuation and resettlement of 350,000 people - -47 workers and firemen dead - -Estimated 5-10,000 extra deaths due to cancer - -Radiation detected in all of Europe

28. Nuclear power accidents   Chernobyl, Ukraine (Soviet Union) Bad reactor design Bad control rod design Multiple procedure violations No containment vessel

29. Chernoblyl sarcophagus

30. Chernoblylite under reactor

31. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 1. Plant Design  Fukushima Daiichi (Plant I) -Unit I - GE Mark I BWR (439 MW), Operating since 1971 -Unit II-IV - GE Mark I BWR (760 MW), Operating since 1974

32. Marquee Lecture 4/12/11 Fukushima Dai-ichi

33. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 1. Plant Design nucleartourist.com en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browns_Ferry_Nuclear_Power_Plant  Building structure -Concrete Building -Steel-framed Service Floor Containment  Pear-shaped Dry-Well  Torus-shaped Wet-Well

34. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 1. Plant Design Reactor Service Floor (Steel Construction) Concrete Reactor Building (secondary Containment) Reactor Core Reactor Pressure Vessel Containment (Dry well) Containment (Wet Well) / Condensation Chamber Spent Fuel Pool Fresh Steam line Main Feedwater

35. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression 11.3.2011 14:46 - Earthquake  Magnitude 9  Power grid in northern Japan fails  Reactors itself are mainly undamaged SCRAM  Power generation due to Fission of Uranium stops  Heat generation due to radioactive Decay of Fission Products  After Scram ~6%  After 1 Day ~1%  After 5 Days ~0.5%

36. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Containment Isolation  Closing of all non-safety related Penetrations of the containment  Cuts off Machine hall  If containment isolation succeeds, a large early release of fission products is highly unlikely Diesel generators start  Emergency Core cooling systems are supplied Plant is in a stable save state

37. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression 11.3. 15:41 Tsunami hits the plant  Plant Design for Tsunami height of up to 6.5m  Actual Tsunami height > 14 m  Flooding of  Diesel Generators and/or  Essential service water building cooling the generators Station Blackout  Common cause failure of the power supply  Only Batteries are still available  Failure of all but one Emergency core cooling systems

38. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Reactor Core Isolation Pump still available  Steam from the Reactor drives a Turbine  Steam gets condensed in the Wet-Well  Turbine drives a Pump  Water from the Wet-Well gets pumped in Reactor  Necessary:  Battery power  Temperature in the wet-well must be below 100°C As there is no heat removal from the building, the Core isolation pump can’t work infinitely

39. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Reactor Isolation pump stops  11.3. 16:36 in Unit 1 (Batteries empty)  14.3. 13:25 in Unit 2 (Pump failure)  13.3. 2:44 in Unit 3 (Batteries empty) Decay Heat produces steam in Reactor pressure Vessel  Pressure rising Opening the steam relief valves  Discharge Steam into the Wet- Well Descending Liquid Level in the Reactor pressure vessel

40. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Reactor Isolation pump stops  11.3. 16:36 in Unit 1 (Batteries empty)  14.3. 13:25 in Unit 2 (Pump failure)  13.3. 2:44 in Unit 3 (Batteries empty) Decay Heat produces steam in Reactor pressure Vessel  Pressure rising Opening the steam relief valves  Discharge Steam into the Wet- Well Descending Liquid Level in the Reactor pressure vessel

41. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Reactor Isolation pump stops  11.3. 16:36 in Unit 1 (Batteries empty)  14.3. 13:25 in Unit 2 (Pump failure)  13.3. 2:44 in Unit 3 (Batteries empty) Decay Heat produces steam in Reactor pressure Vessel  Pressure rising Opening the steam relief valves  Discharge Steam into the Wet- Well Descending Liquid Level in the Reactor pressure vessel

42. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Reactor Isolation pump stops  11.3. 16:36 in Unit 1 (Batteries empty)  14.3. 13:25 in Unit 2 (Pump failure)  13.3. 2:44 in Unit 3 (Batteries empty) Decay Heat produces steam in Reactor pressure Vessel  Pressure rising Opening the steam relief valves  Discharge Steam into the Wet- Well Descending Liquid Level in the Reactor pressure vessel

43. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Reactor Isolation pump stops  11.3. 16:36 in Unit 1 (Batteries empty)  14.3. 13:25 in Unit 2 (Pump failure)  13.3. 2:44 in Unit 3 (Batteries empty) Decay Heat produces steam in Reactor pressure Vessel  Pressure rising Opening the steam relief valves  Discharge Steam into the Wet- Well Descending Liquid Level in the Reactor pressure vessel

44. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Reported liquid level is the measured collapsed level. The actual liquid level lies higher due to the steam bubbles in the liquid ~50% of the core exposed  Cladding temperatures rise, but still no significant core damage ~2/3 of the core exposed  Cladding temperature exceeds ~900°C  Balooning / Breaking of the cladding  Release of fission products form the fuel rod gaps

45. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression ~3/4 of the core exposed  Cladding exceeds ~1200°C  Zirconium in the cladding starts to burn under Steam atmosphere  Zr + 2H 2 0 ->ZrO 2 + 2H 2  Exothermal reaction further heats the core  Generation of hydrogen  Unit 1: 300-600kg  Unit 2/3: 300-1000kg  Hydrogen gets pushed via the wet-well, the wet-well vacuum breakers into the dry-well

46. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression at ~1800°C[Unit 1,2,3]  Melting of the Cladding  Melting of the steel structures at ~2500°C[Block 1,2]  Breaking of the fuel rods  debris bed inside the core at ~2700°C[Block 1]  Melting of Uranium-Zirconium eutectics Restoration of the water supply stops accident in all 3 Units  Unit 1: 12.3. 20:20 (27h w.o. water)  Unit 2: 14.3. 20:33 (7h w.o. water)  Unit 3: 13.3. 9:38 (7h w.o. water)

47. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Release of fission products during melt down  Xenon, Cesium, Iodine,…  Uranium/Plutonium remain in core  Fission products condense to airborne Aerosols Discharge through valves into water of the condensation chamber  Pool scrubbing binds a fraction of Aerosols in the water Xenon and remaining aerosols enter the Dry-Well  Deposition of aerosols on surfaces further decontaminates air

48. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Containment  Last barrier between Fission Products and Environment  Wall thickness ~3cm  Design Pressure 4-5bar Actual pressure up to 8 bars  Normal inert gas filling (Nitrogen)  Hydrogen from core oxidation  Boiling condensation chamber (like a pressure cooker) Depressurization of the containment  Unit 1: 12.3. 4:00  Unit 2: 13.3 00:00  Unit 3: 13.3. 8.41

49. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Positive and negative Aspects of depressurizing the containment  Removes Energy from the Reactor building (only way left)  Reducing the pressure to ~4 bar  Release of small amounts of Aerosols (Iodine, Cesium ~0.1%)  Release of all noble gases  Release of Hydrogen Gas is released into the reactor service floor  Hydrogen is flammable

50. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Units 1 and 3  Hydrogen burn inside the reactor service floor  Destruction of the steel-frame roof  Reinforced concrete reactor building seems undamaged  Spectacular but minor safety relevant

51. The Fukushima Daiichi Incident The Fukushima Daiichi Incident 2. Accident progression Unit 2  Hydrogen burn inside the reactor building  Probably damage to the condensation chamber (highly contaminated water)  Uncontrolled release of gas from the containment  Release of fission products  Temporal evacuation of the plant  High local dose rates on the plant site due to wreckage hinder further recovery work No clear information why Unit 2 behaved differently

54.  Health problems linked to aging coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year, including 2,800 from lung cancer, and nearly all those early deaths could be prevented if the U.S. government adopted stricter rules  About 180 people are killed per year by getting hit by coal trains