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Published byDante Gallop Modified over 9 years ago
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Chapter 7: Human Memory
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Human Memory: Basic Questions How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory?
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Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory
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Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory The role of attention Focusing awareness Selective attention = selection of input Filtering: early or late? Multitasking
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Figure 7.3 Models of selective attention
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Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart (1972) Incoming information processed at different levels Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes Encoding levels: Structural = shallow Phonemic = intermediate Semantic = deep
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Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing theory
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Figure 7.5 Retention at three levels of processing
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Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding Thinking of examples Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory Self-Referent Encoding Making information personally meaningful
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Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory Information-processing theories Subdivide memory into 3 different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
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Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
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Sensory Memory Brief preservation of information in original sensory form Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second George Sperling (1960) Classic experiment on visual sensory store
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Figure 7.8 Sperling’s (1960) study of sensory memory
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Short Term Memory (STM) Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
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Figure 7.9 Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study of short-term memory
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Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” STM not limited to phonemic encoding Loss of information not only due to decay Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working memory Phonological rehearsal loop Visuospatial sketchpad Executive control system
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Working Memory Capacity Influences ability to control focus of attention Capacity correlates positively with measures of high-level cognitive abilities Critical to complex cognitive processes and intelligence Declines gradually during late adulthood
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Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity Permanent storage? Flashbulb memories Recall through hypnosis Debate: are STM and LTM really different? Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding Decay vs. Interference based forgetting
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How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies Schemas and Scripts Semantic Networks Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
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Figure 7.13 Conceptual hierarchies and long-term memory.
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Figure 7.14 A semantic network..
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval Retrieval cues Recalling an event Context cues Reconstructing memories Misinformation effect Source monitoring, reality monitoring
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Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Retention – the proportion of material retained Recall Recognition Relearning Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
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Figure 7.17 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables
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Figure 7.18. Recognition versus recall in the measurement of retention.
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Why Do We Forget? Ineffective Encoding Decay theory Interference theory Proactive Retroactive Forgetting as adaptation
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Figure 7.19 Retroactive and proactive interference
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Retrieval Failure Encoding Specificity Transfer-Appropriate Processing Repression Authenticity of repressed memories Memory illusions Controversy
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Figure 7.21 Estimates of the prevalence of childhood physical and sexual abuse
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Figure 7.22 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)
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The Physiology of Memory Biochemistry Alteration in synaptic transmission Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems Protein synthesis Neural circuitry Localized neural circuits Reusable pathways in the brain Long-term potentiation Neurogenesis
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The Physiology of Memory Anatomy Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus, Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
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Figure 7.23 The anatomy of memory
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Figure 7.24 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia
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Are There Multiple Memory Systems? Declarative vs. Procedural Semantic vs. Episodic Prospective vs. Retrospective
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Figure 7.25 Theories of independent memory systems
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Improving Everyday Memory Engage in adequate rehearsal Distribute practice and minimize interference Emphasize deep processing and transfer- appropriate processing Organize information Use verbal mnemonics Use visual mnemonics
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