1. Why Language is Significant Language is a key medium by which culture is transmitted Language is a key medium by which culture is transmitted Language reflects concepts and values (Wittgenstein: The limits of my language are the limits of my world) Language reflects concepts and values (Wittgenstein: The limits of my language are the limits of my world) Language is linked to behavior Language is linked to behavior Sometimes, language IS behavior Sometimes, language IS behavior

2. Descriptions and Evaluations Descriptions often mask value judgments Descriptions often mask value judgments Some descriptions ARE evaluations masquerading as descriptions—esp. abusive or discrediting descriptions: fascist, old-fashioned, godless, “bleeding- heart” Some descriptions ARE evaluations masquerading as descriptions—esp. abusive or discrediting descriptions: fascist, old-fashioned, godless, “bleeding- heart” Some words are both descriptive and evaluative: scientific, irrational, murder Some words are both descriptive and evaluative: scientific, irrational, murder

3. Connotations Words have both denotations (meaning) and connotations (associations) Words have both denotations (meaning) and connotations (associations) Consider the connotations of: atheist, conservative, poor, rural, educated Consider the connotations of: atheist, conservative, poor, rural, educated Resignification as a means of enacting conceptual and social change Resignification as a means of enacting conceptual and social change

4. Asymmetrical Descriptions Involves describing a feature in oneself and in others in ways that evaluate that feature differently based on connotations Involves describing a feature in oneself and in others in ways that evaluate that feature differently based on connotations Faithful v. Fanatic Faithful v. Fanatic Open-Minded v. Wishy-Washy Open-Minded v. Wishy-Washy Religion v. Sect v. Cult Religion v. Sect v. Cult

5. Appeal to Cultural Norms or Paradigms In psychology, a Paradigm is similar to a stereotype; a paradigm of ‘bird’ would be a concept of what an ideal bird is like In psychology, a Paradigm is similar to a stereotype; a paradigm of ‘bird’ would be a concept of what an ideal bird is like To appeal to a cultural norm or paradigm is to use language that convinces by association, where those associations involve psychological paradigms or cultural practices To appeal to a cultural norm or paradigm is to use language that convinces by association, where those associations involve psychological paradigms or cultural practices Ex: Abortion stops a beating heart (What do we associate with the heart?) Ex: Abortion stops a beating heart (What do we associate with the heart?) Ex: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns (What does ‘outlaw’ mean to you? What image do you see?) Ex: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns (What does ‘outlaw’ mean to you? What image do you see?)

6. Hyperbole Deliberate exaggeration used to persuade or motivate without accurate evidence Deliberate exaggeration used to persuade or motivate without accurate evidence Often used to make genuine problems seem worse than they really are Often used to make genuine problems seem worse than they really are Especially watch for “always” and “never” claims Especially watch for “always” and “never” claims Watch for media use of hyperbole: “It was a simple operation, but for Miss X, it became a nightmare…” Watch for media use of hyperbole: “It was a simple operation, but for Miss X, it became a nightmare…”

7. Hypostatizing Involves treating an abstraction or generality as if it were a concrete thing Involves treating an abstraction or generality as if it were a concrete thing Examples: The American Way of Life, The Family, The Jews, The West Examples: The American Way of Life, The Family, The Jews, The West Watch for words that identify something whose meaning is vague or questionable: Freedom, Democracy, Love, God Watch for words that identify something whose meaning is vague or questionable: Freedom, Democracy, Love, God Often involves ignoring differences within groups: Liberals, Conservatives, The Religious Right, Islam, Christianity Often involves ignoring differences within groups: Liberals, Conservatives, The Religious Right, Islam, Christianity

8. Deceptive Euphemisms (or Deceptive Neologisms) Terminology used to misrepresent what is actually the case Terminology used to misrepresent what is actually the case Often used to “sanitize” a practice Often used to “sanitize” a practice Ex: Camus on execution: people aren’t killed, rather ‘the condemned’ or ‘prisoner #x’ “paid his debt to society” Ex: Camus on execution: people aren’t killed, rather ‘the condemned’ or ‘prisoner #x’ “paid his debt to society” Ex: Nazi language: ‘resettlement’ or ‘special treatment’ instead of ‘killed’ Ex: Nazi language: ‘resettlement’ or ‘special treatment’ instead of ‘killed’