1. Local adaptations to climate extremes in rural Africa: opportunities and barriers Marisa Goulden, Lars Otto Næss, Katharine Vincent and Neil Adger Living with climate change: are there limits to adaptation? London, February 2008

2. Overview Study areas Opportunities and barriers to adaptation Adaptation examples Access to adaptations Institutional and policy influence on adaptation Conclusions

3. Study areas Uganda: Central Uganda, shallow lakes, wetlands and farmland Tanzania: Dodoma Region, dryland landscape: savanna and hill top forests South Africa: Limpopo Province, dryland landscape

4. Study areas Uganda: Central Uganda, shallow lakes, wetlands and farmland Flooding and drought, lake area and fish catch variability Tanzania: Dodoma Region, dryland landscape: savanna and hill top forests High rainfall variability, droughts, perception of decrease in rainfall South Africa: Limpopo Province, dryland landscape High rainfall variability, floods and droughts

5. Opportunities and barriers exist Experience of climate impacts demonstrates many opportunities for adaptations Barriers to adaptation exist where individuals lack access to assets Institutions and policies influence access to adaptations

6. Adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based

7. Adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Concurrent diversity Multiple activities to spread risk and increase income Temporal diversity Swapping activities over time Spatial diversity Migration, relocation, spatial spread

8. Adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Knowledge of historical variability Traditional skills Traditional practices

9. Adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Loans, exchange, informal credit, remittances. Labouring for other households Collective action groups, government assistance

10. Adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Concurrent diversity Multiple activities to spread risk and increase income Knowledge of historical variability Loans, exchange, informal credit, remittances. Temporal diversity Swapping activities over time Traditional skills Labouring for other households Spatial diversity Migration, relocation, spatial spread Traditional practices Collective action groups, government assistance

11. Access to adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based

12. Access to adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Depends on wealth, gender, age, health, labour, social links Requires access to diverse capital assets Poor resort to temporal diversification and use of natural resources.

13. Access to adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Depends on gender, age, skills, knowledge and labour Threats to traditional uses of resources. Varying trust in traditional practices.

14. Access to adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Access provided by bridging and linking social capital Limits of bonding social capital adaptations Depends on wealth, education, gender and occupation

15. Access to adaptations Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Depends on wealth, gender, age, health, labour, social links Depends on gender, age, skills, knowledge and labour Access provided by bridging and linking social capital Requires access to diverse capital assets Threats to traditional uses of resources. Limits of bonding social capital adaptations Poor resort to temporal diversification and use of natural resources. Varying trust in traditional practices. Depends on wealth, education, gender and occupation

16. Institutional and policy influence on adaptation Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based

17. Institutional and policy influence on adaptation Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Village-based institutions facilitate access Weak institutional capacity impedes government assistance Fisheries regulations enforcement hinders fishing based livelihoods

18. Institutional and policy influence on adaptation Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Loss of local knowledge Local wild food substitutes for insufficient food aid Conflict of government initiatives and regulations with traditional practices.

19. Institutional and policy influence on adaptation Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Government assistance reduces traditional reciprocity Government assistance favours those with better social links Social, political and environmental change influence collective action opportunities.

20. Institutional and policy influence on adaptation Livelihood diversification Local Knowledge based Social links based Village-based institutions facilitate access Loss of local knowledge Government assistance reduces traditional reciprocity Weak institutional capacity impedes government assistance Local wild food substitutes for insufficient food aid Government assistance favours those with better social links Fisheries regulations enforcement hinders fishing based livelihoods Conflict of government initiatives and regulations with traditional practices. Social, political and environmental change influence collective action opportunities.

21. Conclusions Rural households have experience of adaptations that rely on livelihood diversification, local knowledge and social links Barriers to adaptation occur where people lack access to assets, e.g. labour, skills, social links. Institutions and government policy influence access to adaptations Opportunities for adaptation can be promoted but those households that lack access will be more vulnerable.