1. Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Perception and Learning in Organizations Chapter Three

2. 3-2 Perception Defined The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us  deciding which information to notice  how to categorize this information  how to interpret information within our existing knowledge framework

3. 3-3 Selective Attention Characteristics of the object  size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty Characteristics of the perceiver  Emotional marker process  expectations  self-concept and beliefs

4. 3-4 Perceptual Organization/Interpretation Categorical thinking  Mostly unconscious process of organizing people/things  Perceptual grouping principles — Closure -- filling in missing pieces — Identifying trends — Similarity or proximity Mental models  Broad world-views or ‘theories-in-use’  Help us to quickly make sense of situations  May block recognition of new opportunities/perspectives

5. 3-5 Social Perception through Social Identity Categorization process  compare characteristics of our groups with other groups Homogenization process  similar traits within a group; different traits across groups Differentiation process  develop less favorable images of people in groups other than our own

6. 3-6 Stereotyping Assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category Occurs because:  Categorical thinking  Innate drive to understand and anticipate others’ behavior  Enhances our self-concept

7. 3-7 Problems with Stereotyping Overgeneralizes  Stereotypes don’t represent all or most people in the category Discrimination  Systemic  Intentional (prejudice) Overcoming stereotype biases  Difficult to prevent stereotype activation  Possible to minimize stereotype application

8. 3-8 Attribution Process Internal Attribution  Perception that person’s behavior is due to motivation/ability rather than situation or fate External Attribution  Perception that behavior is due to situation or fate rather than the person

9. 3-9 Rules of Attribution External Attribution FrequentlyConsistencySeldom Internal Attribution FrequentlyDistinctivenessSeldomSeldomConsensusFrequently

10. 3-10 Attribution Errors Fundamental Attribution Error  attributing own actions to external factors and other’s actions to internal factors Self-Serving Bias  attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors

11. 3-11 Positive Self-Fulfilling Prophecies at Cocoplans Cocoplans president Caesar T. Michelena believes in treating employees as customers. “ It's a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you believe that [employees] will not last, your behavior towards them will show it … You get what you expect. ”

12. 3-12 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle Supervisorformsexpectations Expectations affect supervisor’s behavior Supervisor’s behavior affects employee Employee’s behavior matches expectations

13. 3-13 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Contingencies Self-fulfilling prophecy effect is strongest: 1.At the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team) 2.When several people have similar expectations about the person 3.When the employee has low rather than high past achievement

14. 3-14 Other Perceptual Errors Halo effect  one trait forms a general impression Primacy effect  first impressions Recency effect  most recent information dominates perceptions False-consensus effect  overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own

15. Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Improving Perceptions Perception and Learning in Organizations

16. 3-16 Strategies to Improve Perceptions 1. Awareness of perceptual biases  Consciously try to minimize these errors 2. Improving self-awareness  Awareness of your values, beliefs and prejudices  Applying Johari Window 3. Meaningful interaction  Close and frequent interaction toward a shared goal  Equal status  Engaged in a meaningful task  Improves empathy

17. 3-17 Known to Self Unknown to Self Known to Others Unknown to Others OpenAreaBlindArea UnknownArea HiddenArea Know Yourself (Johari Window) OpenAreaBlindArea HiddenAreaUnknownArea Disclosure Feedback

18. 3-18 Vodafone Executive Grahame Maher Vodafone executive Grahame Maher maintains meaningful interaction with staff by discarding the executive suite and working alongside employees every day. Grahame Maher Vodafone Czech CEO

19. Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Learning in Organizations Perception and Learning in Organizations

20. 3-20 Definition of Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment

21. 3-21 Explicit vs.Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge  Knowledge that is articulated through language, such as documents Tacit knowledge  Knowledge acquired through observation and direct experience

22. 3-22 Behavior Modification We “operate” on the environment  alter behavior to maximize positive and minimize adverse consequences Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant

23. 3-23 A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification Consequences What happens after behavior Co-workersthankoperator Example Behavior What person says or does Machine operator turns off power Antecedents What happens before behavior Warninglightflashes

24. 3-24 Contingencies of Reinforcement Behavior increases/ maintained Behavior decreases Consequence is introduced Consequence is removed Punishment Positivereinforcement ExtinctionPunishment Negativereinforcement No consequence

25. 3-25 Behavior Modification in Practice Behavior modification is used in:  every day life to influence behavior of others  company programs to reduce absenteeism, improve safety, etc. Behavior modification problems include:  Reward inflation  Behaviorist philosophy vs. learning through mental processes

26. 3-26 Social Learning Theory Behavioral modeling  Observing and modeling behavior of others Learning behavior consequences  Observing consequences that others experience Self-reinforcement  Reinforcing our own behavior with consequences within our control

27. 3-27 Concreteexperience Reflectiveobservation Abstractconceptualization Activeexperimentation Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model

28. 3-28 Developing a Learning Orientation Value the generation of new knowledge Reward experimentation Recognize mistakes as part of learning Encourage employees to take reasonable risks

29. 3-29 Organizational Learning Knowledge acquisition  Extracting information and ideas from the external environment as well as through insight Knowledge sharing  Distributing knowledge to others across the organization Knowledge use  Applying knowledge in ways that adds value to the organization and its stakeholders

30. Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Perception and Learning in Organizations Chapter Three