1. Financial Accounting Theory Craig Deegan
Chapter 8
Unregulated corporate reporting decisions: considerations of systems-oriented theories
Slides written by Craig Deegan
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

2. Learning Objectives In this chapter you will be introduced to:
how community or stakeholders’ perceptions can influence the disclosure policies of an organisation
how Legitimacy Theory, Stakeholder Theory and Institutional Theory can be applied to help explain why an entity might elect to make particular voluntary disclosures
organisational legitimacy and how corporate disclosures within such places as annual reports can be used as a strategy to maintain or restore the legitimacy of an organisation
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

3. Learning objectives (cont.)
how the respective power and information demands of particular stakeholder groups can influence corporate disclosure policies
the view that a successful organisation is one that is able to balance or manage the demands, including information demands, of different stakeholder groups
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

4. Systems-oriented theories
Legitimacy Theory, Stakeholder Theory and Institutional Theory are all systems-based theories
Focus on the role of information and disclosure in the relationships between organisations, the State, individuals and groups
The entity is influenced by, and influences, the society in which it operates
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

5. Political Economy Theory
Legitimacy Theory, Stakeholder Theory and Institutional Theory derived from Political Economy theory
Political economy is ‘the social, political and economic framework within which human life takes place’ (Gray, Owen & Adams 1996, p.47)
Economic issues cannot be investigated in the absence of considering the political, social and institutional framework within which economic activity takes place
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

6. Political Economy Theory (cont.)
Corporate reports not considered neutral and unbiased, but are a product of the interchange between the corporation and its environment
Two streams of Political Economy theory
classical
bourgeois
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

7. Classical Political Economy Theory
Related to the works of Marx
Considers class interests, structural conflict, inequity and the role of the state
Accounting reports and disclosures are a means of maintaining the favoured position of those who control scarce resources
Focuses on the structural conflicts within society
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

8. Bourgeois Political Economy Theory
Does not explicitly consider structural conflicts and class struggles
Concerned with interactions between groups in an essentially pluralistic world
Legitimacy Theory and Stakeholder Theory derive from this branch
Does not question or study the various class structures within society
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

9. Legitimacy Theory
Organisations seek to ensure they operate within the bounds and norms of their respective societies
activities are perceived to be ‘legitimate’
Bounds and norms not static so require organisation to be responsive
Relies on the notion of a ‘social contract’
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

10. Legitimacy versus legitimation
Legitimacy is the status or condition which exists when an entity’s value system is congruent with that of society
Legitimation is the process which leads to an organisation being viewed as legitimate
Legitimacy theory relies upon the notion that there is a ‘social contract’ between the organisation and the society in which it operates
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

11. Legitimacy versus legitimisation (cont.)
To be considered legitimate it is not the actual conduct of the organisation that is important, it is what society collectively knows or perceives about the organisation’s conduct that shapes legitimacy
Information disclosure is vital to establishing corporate legitimacy
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

12. Social contract
Represents the implicit and explicit expectations that society has about how the organisation should conduct its operations
legal requirements might provide the explicit terms of the contract, while other non-legislated societal expectations embody the implicit terms
Traditionally the optimal measure of performance was profit maximisation
Public expectations have changed so organisations are now required to address human, environmental and other social issues
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

13. Social contract (cont.)
As Mathews (1993, p.26) states:
The social contract would exist between corporations (usually limited companies) and individual members of society. Society (as a collection of individuals) provides corporations with their legal standing and attributes and the authority to own and use natural resources and to hire employees. Organisations draw on community resources and output both goods and services and waste products to the general environment. The organisation has no inherent rights to these benefits, and in order to allow their existence, society would expect the benefits to exceed the costs to society.
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

14. Implications of not meeting social contract
Society allows the organisation to continue operations to the extent that it meets their expectations
The organisation may find it difficult to obtain the necessary support and resources to continue operations
may lead to sanctions such as legal restrictions on operations, limited resources provided or reduced demand for products
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

15. Legitimacy and changing community expectations
Community expectations are not static
As community expectations change, organisations must also adapt and change
Legitimacy can be threatened even when the organisation’s performance is not deviating from society’s expectations
perhaps the organisation has failed to make disclosures that show it is complying with community expectations
Or, perhaps previously unknown information about the organisation comes to light (perhaps through the media)
part of the ‘organisation shadow’ is revealed
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

16. Actions to legitimise activities
Adapt output, goals and methods of operation to conform to definitions of legitimacy
Attempt, through communication, to alter the definition of social legitimacy so it conforms with the organisation’s present practices, output and values
Attempt, through communication, to become identified with symbols or values which imply legitimacy
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

17. Communication to maintain legitimacy
Seek to educate and inform the community about changes in performance and activities
Seek to change perceptions but not behaviour
Seek to manipulate perception by deflecting attention from the issue to other related issues
Seek to change external expectations
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

18. Role of public disclosure
Public disclosure in such places as annual reports, sustainability reports and websites can be used to implement each of the previous strategies
Perspective adopted by many researchers of social responsibility reporting
Highlights the strategic nature of financial statements and other related disclosures
Disclosures might be substantive or symbolic
substantive disclosures would reflect actual changes in corporate activities
symbolic disclosures do not reflect ‘real’ change but are made to appear consistent with social values and expectations
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

19. Empirical tests of Legitimacy Theory
Used by numerous researchers examining social and environmental reporting practices
Used to attempt to explain disclosures
Disclosures form part of the portfolio of strategies undertaken to bring legitimacy to, or maintain legitimacy of, the organisation
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

20. Examples of empirical studies
Patten (1992):
examined the change in the extent of environmental disclosures of US oil firms around the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska
legitimacy theory suggested that they would increase disclosure in the annual report after the spill
found the increase in disclosure occurred across the industry
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

21. Examples of empirical studies (cont.)
Deegan and Rankin (1996):
used Legitimacy Theory to explain changes in annual report, environmental disclosure policies around proven environmental prosecutions
prosecuted firms disclosed significantly more environmental information in the year of prosecution than any other year
prosecuted firms disclosed more ‘positive’ environmental information than a matched sample of non-prosecuted firms
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

22. Examples of empirical studies (cont.)
Deegan and Gordon (1996):
investigated the objectivity of environmental disclosure practices and trends over time, as well as whether environmental disclosures related to environmental group concerns
found increased disclosure over time associated with increased environmental group membership
disclosures mostly positive
positive relation between environmental sensitivity of industry and disclosure
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

23. Examples of empirical studies (cont.)
Gray, Kouhy and Lavers (1995):
performed longitudinal study of UK social and environmental disclosures from 1979 to 1991
related trends to Legitimacy Theory, with specific reference to Lindblom’s strategies
Deegan, Rankin and Voght (2000):
used Legitimacy Theory to explain how social disclosures in annual reports changed around the time of major social incidents or disasters
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

24. Examples of empirical studies (cont.)
Brown and Deegan (1998) emphasised the role of the media in shaping community expectations and showed that corporate disclosures responded to media attention
Carpenter and Feroz (1992):
undertook a US study on the government’s choice of an accounting framework
related to a desire to increase the legitimacy of an organisation
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

25. How management determines society’s expectations
Legitimacy Theory proposes a relationship between corporate disclosure and community expectations
Management has been found to rely on the media to provide an insight into community perceptions, with the media being observed to shape community expectations (O’Donovan 1999)
O’Donovan (1999) provided evidence that corporate managers believe that:
the media shapes public concerns
annual report disclosures are a means of winning back the support of the community after adverse media coverage
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

26. Impact of media attention
Islam and Deegan (2008) reviewed the social and environmental disclosure practices of Nike and Hennes & Mauritz from 1987 to 2005
found a direct relationship between the extent of global news media coverage of a critical nature directed towards particular social issues and the extent of social disclosure in the annual report
Their findings supported a view that:
the media is able to influence community concerns in relation to unobtrusive issues (creates a legitimacy gap)
managers will make disclosure responses to the media attention
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

27. Legitimacy Theory versus Positive Accounting Theory
Legitimacy Theory has been compared to the Political Cost Hypothesis of PAT
Legitimacy Theory relies on the notion of a ‘social contract’
It does not rely on the economics-based assumption that all action is driven by self-interest and wealth maximisation or make assumptions about the efficiency of markets
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

28. Stakeholder Theory Two branches of Stakeholder Theory
ethical (moral) or normative branch
positive (managerial) branch
Many similarities between Legitimacy Theory and Stakeholder Theory
should not be treated as two separate theories but two (overlapping) perspectives of the issue set within a ‘political economy’ framework
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

29. Ethical (normative) branch of Stakeholder Theory
All stakeholders have the right to be treated fairly by an organisation
Issues of stakeholder power are not directly relevant
Management should manage the organisation for the benefit of all stakeholders
Firm is a vehicle for coordinating stakeholder interests
Management have a fiduciary relationship to all stakeholders
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

30. Ethical branch of Stakeholder Theory (cont.)
Where interests conflict, business managed to attain optimal balance among them
Each group merits consideration in its own right
Also have a right to be provided with information, even if not used
This perspective of corporate responsibilities is not validated (or rejected) on the basis of empirical observations (that is, these researchers are providing argument about what should be and not what is)
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

31. Definition of stakeholders
Any identifiable group or individual who can affect the achievement of an organisation’s objectives, or is affected by the achievement of an organisation’s objectives (Freeman & Reed 1983)
There are two branches to the above definition
Proponents of the ethical branch of stakeholder theory would include both branches when identifying stakeholders
Proponents of a managerial perspective of stakeholder theory would only consider the first branch (that is, those stakeholder who can affect the achievement of the firm’s objectives)
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

32. Primary versus secondary stakeholders
Primary stakeholders
ones without whose continuing participation the corporation cannot survive as a going concern
Secondary stakeholders
those who influence or affect, or are influenced or affected by, the corporation, but they are not engaged in transactions with the corporation and are not essential for its survival
Ethical branch does not differentiate between primary and secondary stakeholders
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

33. Right to information—accountability
In considering rights to information accountability is considered
the duty to provide an account or reckoning of those actions for which one is held responsible
Accountability involves two responsibilities
to undertake certain actions
to provide an account of those actions
Reporting is assumed to be a responsibility rather than demand driven
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

34. Testing of ethical branch of theory
As the ethical branch embraces normative perspectives about how the organisation should act, it cannot be validated by empirical observation As Donaldson and Preston (1995, p.67) state:
In normative uses, the correspondence between the theory and the observed facts of corporate life is not a significant issue, nor is the association between stakeholder management and conventional performance measures a critical test. Instead a normative theory attempts to interpret the function of, and offer guidance about, the investor-owned corporation on the basis of some underlying moral or philosophical principles.
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

35. Managerial branch of Stakeholder Theory
By contrast, this branch of stakeholder theory attempts to explain when corporate management will be likely to attend to the expectations of particular (powerful) stakeholders
More organisation-centred
stakeholders identified by the organisation
extent to which organisation believes relationship needs to be managed in interests of the organisation
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

36. Managerial branch of Stakeholder Theory (cont.)
Research undertaken under the managerial branch of stakeholder theory can be tested with empirical observation
unlike normative ethical branch
Specifically considers the different stakeholder groups within society, and how they should best be managed
not society as a whole like Legitimacy Theory
Expectations of stakeholders considered to impact on operating and disclosure policies
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

37. Stakeholder power
Organisation will not respond to all stakeholders equally, but to the most powerful
Stakeholder power is a function of the stakeholder’s degree of control over resources required by the organisation
e.g. labour, finance, influential media, ability to legislate, ability to influence consumption of the organisation’s goods and services
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

38. Stakeholder power (cont.)
Major role of management is to assess the importance of meeting stakeholder demands so as to achieve strategic firm objectives
Expectations and power relativities of various stakeholders change over time
Organisation must continually adapt operating and disclosure strategies
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

39. The role of information
Information, including financial accounting and social performance information, is a major element employed to manage stakeholders
Used to gain support or approval
Also used to distract their opposition or disapproval
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

40. Examples of empirical studies
Roberts (1992)
found measures of stakeholder power and their related information needs can provide some explanation of levels and types of corporate social disclosures
Neu, Warsame and Pedwell (1998)
firms more responsive (in terms of corporate environmental disclosure) to the concerns of financial stakeholders and government regulators than to environmentalists
Islam and Deegan (2008)
Garment suppliers in a developing country (Bangladesh) responsive to the expectations of multinational buying companies, with the multinational buying companies in turn being responsive to the expectations of western consumers (who’s expectations about working conditions, child labour, and so on – which are unobtrusive events - are influenced by the western media)
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

41. Ethical view versus managerial view
By separately considering the two perspectives of Stakeholder theory, it could be construed that management might either be ethically aware, or focused on the survival of the organisation
Management will arguably be driven by both ethical and performance considerations
We need to understand the complementary roles normative and descriptive research play
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

42. Institutional Theory
Provides an explanation about why organisations tend to take on similar characteristics and form
Particular organisational forms might be adopted in order to bring legitimacy to the organisation
‘Organisations conform because they are rewarded for doing so through increased legitimacy, resources and survival capabilities’ (Scott 1987, p.498)
Provides a complimentary perspective to both legitimacy theory and stakeholder theory
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

43. Institutional Theory (cont.)
Links organisation practices to societal values
Organisational form tends towards some form of homogeneity
‘deviants’ will have problems gaining or maintaining legitimacy
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

44. Isomorphism and decoupling
Two main dimensions of Institutional Theory are isomorphism and decoupling
Isomorphism refers to ‘a constraining process that forces one unit in a population to resemble other units that face the same set of environmental conditions’ (DiMaggio & Powell 1983, p.149)
Three different isomorphic processes
coercive
mimetic
normative
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

45. Coercive isomorphism
Arises where organisations change their institutional practices because of pressure from those stakeholders upon which the organisation is dependent
Related to the managerial branch of stakeholder theory
Because powerful stakeholders might have similar expectations of other organisations, there will tend to be conformity in practices across organisations, including their reporting practices
Consider how the World Bank has been able to influence reporting practices in developing countries (Neu and Ocampo 2007)
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

46. Mimetic isomorphism
Organisations often copy other organisation’s practices for competitive advantage and to reduce uncertainty
‘Uncertainty is a powerful force that encourages imitation’ (DiMaggio & Powell 1983, p.151)
Organisations within a particular sector adopt similar practices to those adopted by leading organisations—enhances external stakeholders’ perceptions of the legitimacy of the organisation
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

47. Mimetic isomorphism (cont.)
Without coercive pressure from stakeholders, it would be unlikely that there would be pressure to mimic others—hence linkage between mimetic and coercive isomorphism
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

48. Normative isomorphism
Pressures from ‘group norms’ to adopt particular institutional practices
Particular groups with particular training will tend to adopt similar practices—non-compliance could result in sanctions being imposed by ‘the group’
Again, provides a rationale for why reporting approaches, and other corporate processes, tend to take on similar form
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

49. Outcomes of isomorphism
Tendency towards similar corporate structures and processes
Isomorphic processes do not necessarily make the organisations more efficient
In practice it is not easy to differentiate between the three types of isomorphism
Strategies might be more about ‘show’ or ‘form’, rather than about substance
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

50. Decoupling
Although managers might see a need to be seen to be adopting particular structures and practices, actual organisational practices can be very different from the formally sanctioned and publicly pronounced processes and practices
For example, the organisational image constructed through corporate reports and other disclosures might be one of social and environmental responsibility when the actual managerial imperative is maximisation of profit or shareholder value
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e

51. Concluding comments
We can see that there is much overlap between the three theories just discussed
Sometimes a joint consideration of different theoretical perspectives can provide a more holistic understanding of particular practices
Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Deegan, Financial Accounting Theory 3e