1. Motivation and Emotion
Ch 13 notes

2. Terminology
Motive: stimulus that moves a person to behave in ways designed to accomplish a specific goal
Need: a condition in which we require something we lack
Both biological and psychological
Drives: forces that motivate an organism to take action (food gives rise to the hunger drive)

3. Instinct Theory
Behavior patterns that are genetically transmitted from generation to generation are instincts
At one time psychologists believed that human behavior, like that of animals, is instinctive
Today, most psychologists do not believe that human behavior is primarily motivated by instinct because it would need to be found throughout the species

4. Drive-Reduction Theory
Based on learning as well as motivation
People and animals experience a drive arising from a need as an unpleasant tension
Learn to do whatever will reduce that tension by reducing the drive (eat to reduce hunger drive)
Some drives are caused by biological needs, some are learned (need for $)
Do what we can to reduce the drive to reach a balance: homeostasis
Explains a lot but not all motivation

5. Humanistic Theory
People are also motivated by the conscious desire for personal growth and artistic fulfillment
Sometimes our drive to fulfill such needs outweighs our drive to meet more basic needs
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
People rise naturally through the levels as long as they do not encounter overwhelming obstacles along the way
Critics say it doesn’t apply to all

6. Sociocultural Theory
Even if basic drives such as hunger are inborn, cultural experiences and factors influence the behavior that people use to satisfy those drives
Foods people eat and the way they eat those foods are shaped by culture

7. Biological Needs
Can be complex because they involve psychological and physiological factors
Ex: food
Hunger drive: regulated by both biological and psychological factors

8. Hunger Drive Mouth: chewing/swallowing help satisfy hunger drive
Stomach: hunger pangs felt in stomach play a role in hunger but are not main factors involved in signaling hunger
Blood sugar level: when low, message carried to hypothalamus
Hypothalamus: sends “start eating” message and “stop eating” message
If one or both don’t work properly, eating patterns are effected

9. Psychological Influences on Hunger
Learning certain amounts of food/drink will produce feeling of well-being and relaxation can cause people to eat/drink when they feel upset
Should parents reward good behavior with food?

10. Obesity More than ½ of US adults are overweight
18% are obese: weigh more than 30% above recommended weight
Increasing problem in the US
Estimated that 300,000 people die each year because of health problems related to excess weight and inactivity

11. Losing Weight
Adolescents should be cautious because they need a good deal of nourishment
Sound diet is one that is sensible, realistic, and well planned
Improve nutritional knowledge, decrease caloric intake, exercise, and substitute healthful foods for harmful foods
Dieting plus exercise is more effective than dieting alone

12. Causes of Obesity Biological and psychological factors
Runs in the family, so is it inherited?
Not necessarily because children learn what they live
Heredity does play a major role (adoptee study)
May not get messages from hypothalamus to stop eating
Genes determine # of fat cells a person has
Psychological Factors
Eat more under stress or negative emotions
Circumstances/situations (parties, tv watching)

13. Needs Psychological & Biological Needs
Some psychological needs motivate us to reduce tension/stimulation
Others actually lead us to increase the amount of stimulation we experience
Stimulus motives: desires for stimulation
Sensory stimulation, activity, exploration, manipulation of the environment
Some have clear survival value (envir.)

14. Sensory Deprivation Absence of stimulation
What happened to the people in the sensory deprivation experiment?
Felt very uncomfortable, felt they went through a terrible ordeal, had trouble concentrating and readjusting to their environment after the experiment
Proves the importance of sensory stimulation to humans

15. Sensation Seeker
Someone who seeks out thrilling activities

16. Why do some psychologists think exploration and manipulation are reinforcing in and of themselves?
Once a person feels comfortable with an environment, they seek novel stimulation (new experiences)
Ex: human infants and the “busy boxes”

17. High Achievement Motivation
Driven to get ahead
Tackle challenging situations
Driven to meet high personal standards of success

18. Performance v. Learning Goals
Specific goals
Ex: gaining admission to a college, earning parent/teacher approval, even just avoiding criticism
Learning
Learning for the sake of learning
Can be very powerful

19. Extrinsic v. Intrinsic Rewards
External rewards
Good grades
Good income
Most often how performance goals are rewarded
Intrinsic
Internal rewards
Self-satisfaction
Usually how learning goals are rewarded

20. Parents’ Role Crucial importance
Need to encourage children to be persistent and find own solutions to problems
Create opportunities to expose children to new and stimulating experiences (learning goals)
Reward kids with toys for good grades, punishment for bad grades (performance)
Overall, tend to be generous with praise to do well and less critical when their children do poorly

21. Cognitive Consistence Theory
People behave in ways expected of them
Primarily motivated by the beliefs we hold about how others view us
Most people prefer that the “pieces” of their lives fit together

22. Balance Theory
People need to organize their perceptions, opinions, and beliefs in a harmonious manner
Do this to maintain a cognitive balance by holding consistent views and by being with people who share their beliefs and values

23. What causes a state of nonbalance?
What causes imbalance?
A major area of disagreement between 2 people who have strong feelings for each other
Tends to upset people
What causes a state of nonbalance?
Not having feelings toward someone
Leaves people feeling indifferent

24. According to the cognitive-dissonance theory, why do people behave the way that they do?
Most people want their thoughts and attitudes (cognitions) to be consistent with their actions
When we become aware that there is an inconsistency (dissonance) we feel unpleasant which causes inner tension that can be uncomfortable
Why do people desire affiliation with others?
Humans are social beings and need to be with others
During adolescence, this need is VERY strong

25. What happens when we experience strong emotions?
Activity in autonomic nervous system – anxiety for example triggers activity of sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
How do emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavior components?
Anxiety makes heart race, breathe rapidly, sweat, muscles tense (bio)
Anxiety: idea that something bad might happen (cognitive)
Anxiety might lead a person to try to escape from a situation (behavioral)

26. Our Emotional State Effects Our Perceptions of Our Surroundings
Happier people usually think the world is a happier, safer place
Tend to make decisions more readily and are more satisfied with their lives
Unhappy people tend to feel like gloom is settling in over everything in their lives
Shows that happiness and unhappiness create their own momentum
Happier we are, the more likely we are to help others

27. Anger Response to insult or attack
Assertive reaction vs. hostile reaction
Can go and speak with the person who made them angry about whatever it was that made them angry rather than getting revenge
Assertiveness is more effective because it allows a person to approach his/her feelings and reduce them while not causing harm to themselves or others

28. Facial Expressions Probably inborn
The ways that specific emotions are expressed appear to be the same around the world

29. Theories of Emotion Opponent-Process Theory Commonsense Approach
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Theory of Cognitive Appraisal

30. Opponent-Process Theory
Emotions come in parts with one followed by its opposite
Eventually restores a balance

31. Commonsense Approach
When something happens to a person in a certain situation, the person quickly interprets the situation
Interpretations trigger body sensations that signal a feeling or emotion
Emotions trigger a behavior
This approach (broad view) has influenced the next 3 theories

32. James-Lange Theory
People’s emotions follow, rather than cause, their behavioral reactions to situations
People act first then react emotionally according to the way they acted
Certain situations trigger reactions – instinctive bodily response patterns that include specific feelings and behaviors
Suggests people can change their feelings by changing their environment

33. Problems with James-Lange Theory
Cognition has little role in determining behavior
Minimizes the role of personal values and choice as factors in human behavior

34. Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotions accompany bodily responses that are aroused by external stimuli
Situation triggers external stimulus that is processed by the brain, brain stimulates bodily changes and cognitive activity (experience of the emotion) happens simultaneously
Emotions are not produced by bodily responses
A 2 stage reaction is involved: bodily response followed by an emotional reaction

35. Theory of Cognitive Appraisal
Argues that all emotions have basically similar bodily response patterns
Body reacts in physically similar ways with different emotions it experiences
Maintains that the way people label an emotion depends on their cognitive appraisal of the situation
Cognitive appraisal that occurs is based on many factors: analysis of situation and ways other are reacting in same situation

36. Criticism of Cognitive Appraisal
Studies designed to support the theory often yield different results when repeated
Lacking test-retest reliability

37. So, are any of the theories correct?No
None are perfect
People are very complex
Emotions then are also complex