1. T EN S TEPS TO A DVANCED R EADING John Langan © 2009 Townsend Press

2. Chapter Five: Relationships II Besides relationships involving addition and time, there are three other common types of relationships: Relationships that involve illustration Relationships that involve comparison and contrast Relationships that involve cause and effect

3. These relationships all involve transitional words and phrases, which are like signs on the road that guide travelers.

4. ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration A.Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not give you a cold. B.Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance, getting a chill will not give you a cold. Which item below is easier to understand?

5. The words for instance make the second item easier to understand. They make it clear that the belief a chill will lead to a cold is an example of a myth. For instance and other words and phrases like it are illustration words. Explanation ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration A.Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not give you a cold. B.Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance, getting a chill will not give you a cold. Which item below is easier to understand?

6. Illustration words indicate that an author will provide one or more examples to develop and clarify a given idea. Here are some common words that show illustration: (for) example including(as an) illustrationone (for) instance specificallyto illustrate once such asto be specific Illustration Words ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration

7. In the sentences below, notice how the illustration words signal that one or more examples are coming. Although they are children’s stories, famous fairy tales such as “Little Red Riding Hood” and “Snow White” are clearly filled with dark symbolic meanings. A number of famous historical figures, including Beethoven, Charles Dickens, and Winston Churchill, suffered from depression. ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration

8. ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern Definition Definition and Example Example The definition and example pattern of organization includes just what its name suggests: a definition and one or more examples.

9. See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.” B. Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. C. Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they liked the instructor.” ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern

10. Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. The paragraph begins with a definition of heuristic. The second and third sentences provide examples of the term. Each example is signaled by an illustration word or phrase. Explanation ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.” Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they liked the instructor.”

11. Textbook authors often provide definitions of important terms, followed by examples. They usually set off the terms they are defining in italic or boldface type. When reading and taking notes on a textbook, always do two things: 1Underline key definitions. 2Write an “Ex” in the margin next to a helpful example for each definition. ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern

12. Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. 1.What term is being defined? 2.Which sentence contains the definition? 3.In which sentence does the example begin? (1)The planning fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project and when. (4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning! ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern

13. 1.What term is being defined? 2.Which sentence contains the definition? 3.In which sentence does the example begin? (1)The planning fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project and when. (4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning! ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern planning fallacy sentence 1 sentence 2

14. Which item below is easier to understand? COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison A.As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward. B.As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.

15. In the second item, the word similarly makes it clear that the author is comparing two forces. Similarly and other words like it are comparison words. Explanation COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison Which item below is easier to understand? A.As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward. B.As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.

16. Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use a comparison transition to show that a second idea is like the first one in some way. Here are some common words that show comparison: (just) as bothin like fashionin a similar fashion (just) like equal(ly)in like manner in a similar manner alikeresemblesimilar(ly)(in) the same way samelikewisesimilarity(in) common Comparison Words COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison

17. During the American Civil War, people in the North and the South were equally anguished by the bloody division of the country. Very young and very old people resemble one another in their dependence upon those around them. In the sentences below, notice how the comparison words show that things are alike in some way. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison

18. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast Which item below is easier to understand? A.The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter. B.The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.

19. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast The first item is puzzling. What connection does the writer intend between the first and second sentence? The second item makes it clear that the writer is disappointed that the movie fell short despite its cast and screenwriter. Even though and words and phrases like it are contrast words. Explanation Which item below is easier to understand? A.The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter. B.The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.

20. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast Contrast words signal that an author is pointing out differences between subjects. Authors use them to show how two things differ in one or more ways. Here are some common words that show contrast: but instead (of)even though difference yetin contrastas opposed todifferent(ly) howeveron the other handin spite ofdiffer (from) althoughon the contrarydespiteunlike neverthelessconverse(ly)rather thanwhile stillopposite Contrast Words

21. In most Western cultures, it is considered normal to marry for love. However, in places where arranged marriages are the norm, it is assumed that love will follow marriage. While mammals have internal mechanisms that regulate body temperature, cold-blooded animals such as lizards must regulate their temperature by external means, such as basking on warm sunny rocks. In the sentences below, notice how the contrast words signal that one idea is different from another idea. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast

22. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern is like Comparison AB is different from Contrast A B The comparison-contrast pattern shows how two things are alike or how they are different, or both.

23. See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A. However, gender differences remain in career choice and development. B. Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s, with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor force. C. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to their husbands’, especially when children are involved. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern

24. Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. The first sentence introduces the idea that women’s labor force participation is becoming comparable to that of men’s. The second sentence presents the main idea, that gender differences remain. It is introduced with the contrast word however. The final sentence gives an example of a significant difference. Explanation COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s, with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor force. However, gender differences remain in career choice and development. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to their husbands’, especially when children are involved.

25. Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. 1.Is the paragraph comparing, contrasting, or both? 2.What two things are being compared and/or contrasted? 3.What are three of the comparison and/or contrast signal words used in the paragraph? (1)Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might expect the content of their dreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has been true. (2)Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household objects, clothes, and indoor events. (3)In contrast, men have been more likely than women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events. (4)But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become more similar, so have their dreams. (5)In one recent study, the content of men’s and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. (6)Only two differences showed up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women were more likely to dream about their anxieties. The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

26. 1.Is the paragraph comparing, contrasting, or both? 2.What two things are being compared and/or contrasted? 3.What are three of the comparison and/or contrast signal words used in the paragraph? (1)Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might expect the content of their dreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has been true. (2)Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household objects, clothes, and indoor events. (3)In contrast, men have been more likely than women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events. (4)But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become more similar, so have their dreams. (5)In one recent study, the content of men’s and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. (6)Only two differences showed up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women were more likely to dream about their anxieties. Both Men’s and women’s dreams Comparison words: similar, resemblance Contrast words: different, differ, In contrast, But, differences, while Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

27. CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect Which item below is easier to understand? A.The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month. Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell. B.The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month because car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.

28. The word because in the second item makes very clear just why the end of the month is the best time to buy a car. Because and words like it are cause and effect words. Explanation CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect Which item below is easier to understand? A.The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month. Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell. B.The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month because car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.

29. Cause and effect words signal that the author is explaining the reason why something happened or the result of something happening. Here are some common words that show cause and effect: Cause and Effect Words therefore so owing tobecause (of) thus (as a) resulteffectreason (as a) consequence results incauseexplanation consequentlyleads (led) toif…thenaccordingly due tosinceaffectdepend(s) on CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect

30. In the sentences below, notice how the cause and effect words introduce a reason for something or the result of something. Young babies have weak necks and relatively heavy heads. Consequently, it is important to support the baby’s head firmly when you hold him or her. Do not refrigerate potatoes. The reason is that a potato’s starch will turn to sugar at low temperatures, making the vegetable taste odd. CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect

31. CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern Cause Cause and Effect Effect Cause and Effect Cause An author uses the cause and effect pattern to show why something happens or the effects of something that has happened.

32. See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A. Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and completed suicides. B. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and psychological difficulties as well. C. Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst. CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern

33. Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. The paragraph begins with the general idea: “Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst.” Next comes a detailed explanation of the results, signaled by cause and effect words. Explanation CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and psychological difficulties as well. Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and completed suicides.

34. Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. ILLUSTRATION The Cause and Effect Pattern (1)During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often charged patrons to use the toilet. (2)People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent fee before they entered a stall. (3)Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost of keeping the restrooms clean. (4)But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably. (5)For one thing, they angered patrons. (6)People accustomed to accessing a restroom for free became upset when they discovered they had to pay. (7)Many outraged bathroom-users vandalized the stalls and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even more expensive. (8)In addition, pay toilets caused more trouble than they were worth. (9)Employees had to be called in so often to fix broken locks that companies gradually realized the extra work wasn ’ t worth a few more dollars. (10)A final explanation why pay toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from women ’ s groups who claimed the toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay regardless while males could use the urinals for free. (11)Rather than spending money on high maintenance and lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use. 1.What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph? 2.What are the three causes discussed? 3.What three cause and effect words are used in the paragraph?

35. Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. 1.What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph? 2.What are the three causes discussed? 3.What three cause and effect words are used in the paragraph? (1)During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often charged patrons to use the toilet. (2)People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent fee before they entered a stall. (3)Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost of keeping the restrooms clean. (4)But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably. (5)For one thing, they angered patrons. (6)People accustomed to accessing a restroom for free became upset when they discovered they had to pay. (7)Many outraged bathroom-users vandalized the stalls and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even more expensive. (8)In addition, pay toilets caused more trouble than they were worth. (9)Employees had to be called in so often to fix broken locks that companies gradually realized the extra work wasn ’ t worth a few more dollars. (10)A final explanation why pay toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from women ’ s groups who claimed the toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay regardless while males could use the urinals for free. (11)Rather than spending money on high maintenance and lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use. ILLUSTRATION The Cause and Effect Pattern The failure of pay toilets A. They angered patrons. B. They caused more trouble than they were worth. C. They triggered lawsuits from women’s groups. reasons, caused, explanation

36. CHAPTER REVIEW In this chapter, you learned about three kinds of relationships that authors use to make their ideas clear: Definitions and examples — To help readers understand the important ideas and terms in a subject, textbook authors often take time to include key definitions (often setting them off in italic or boldface) and examples of those definitions. When reading a textbook, it is usually a good idea to mark off both definitions and examples. (Underline each definition, and put Ex in the margin next to each example.) — Transition words that signal the definition and example pattern include for example, for instance, to illustrate, and such as. Comparison and/or contrast — Authors often discuss how two things are alike or how they are different, or both. — Transition words that signal comparisons include alike and similar. — Transition words that signal contrasts include but, however, and in contrast. (Chapter Review continues on next slide)

37. CHAPTER REVIEW, continued Cause and effect — Authors often discuss the reasons why something happens or the effects of something that has happened. — Transition words that signal causes include reason and because. — Transition words that signal effects include therefore, consequently, and as a result. The next chapter—Chapter 6—will sharpen your ability to make inferences in reading. Note that pages 212–216 in the textbook list and offer practice in all the transitions and patterns of organization covered in “Relationships I” and “Relationships II.”