1. The Lithosphere

2. The Lithosphere

3. The Crust Thin, rocky outer layer Either oceanic or continental
Oceanic is 7-km thick
Continental is 8-75 km thick

4. The Mantle 82% of Earth’s volume 2890-km thick Solid rock at the top
Liquid rock at the bottom

5. The Core Composed of an iron-nickel alloy
Extreme pressure found at the center

6. Outer Core Inner Core Liquid layer 2260-km thick
Metallic iron flow creates Earth’s magnetic field
Inner Core
Solid layer
Radius of 1220-km
High temperature
High pressure
Mostly nickel

7. Layers based on Physical Properties
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere

8. Layers based on Physical Properties
Lithosphere
Crust and Upper most mantle
Cool, rigid shell
100-km thick
Asthenosphere
Below the Lithosphere
Soft, comparatively weak layer
Rocks close to melting

9. Types of Rocks?

10. Types of Rocks Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rocks
Forms when lava or magma cools
Sedimentary Rock
When existing rocks are broken down into pieces then compacted and cemented together
Metamorphic Rocks
When existing rocks are changed by heat and pressure

11. What is the ROCK CYCLE?

12. The Rock Cycle

13. What is Continental Drift?

14. What is Continental Drift?
Proposed by Alfred Wegener
Stated that the continents had once been joined to form a single supercontinent
Supercontinent was called Pangaea

15. What did the Theory Say? Occurred 500 million years ago
Pangaea broke apart 200 million years ago
Continents “Drifted” (moved) to present positions
Continents “broke” through the oceans
North America and Africa split 135 million years ago

16. Evidence of Continental Drift

17. Evidence of Continental Drift
Shorelines look like they fit together
Same fossil organisms found on different landmasses
Several mountain belts end at one coastline, only to reappear on a land mass across the ocean
Ancient Climates relate

18. The Theory of Plate Tectonics

19. Plate Boundary Activities?

20. Plate Boundary Activities
Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Mountain Building
Sea Floor Spreading

22. Types of Plate Boundaries
…………………………………………..

23. Types of Plate Boundaries
Divergent Boundary
Convergent Boundary
Transform Fault Boundary

24. Plate Boundary? When two plates move apart
Also called spreading centers
New crust is created (mainly seafloor)
Known as sea floor spreading
Causes Ocean Ridges and Rift Valleys (on continents)

25. Plate Boundary? Two plates move toward each other 3 versions
Oceanic-Continental
Continental-Continental
Oceanic-Oceanic

26. Oceanic-Continental Convergent Boundary
Oceanic plate goes beneath the continental plate
Causes:

27. Oceanic-Continental Convergent Boundary
Oceanic plate goes beneath the continental plate
Causes
Subduction zones
Trenches
Continental Volcanic arcs (ex: The Andes)

28. Continental-Continental Convergent Boundary
Two continental plates collide
Causes:

29. Continental-Continental Convergent Boundary
Two continental plates collide
Causes Mountains to form
Ex: Appalachians, Himalayas, Alps

30. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent Boundary
One oceanic plate goes beneath another oceanic plate
Causes:

31. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent Boundary
One oceanic plate goes beneath another oceanic plate
Causes Volcanic Island Arc
Ex: Aleutian Islands

32. Transform Fault Plate Boundary
Two plates grind past each other
No production or destruction of lithosphere
Causes:

33. Transform Fault Plate Boundary
Two plates grind past each other
No production or destruction of lithosphere
Causes Earthquakes
Ex: San Francisco

34. What Causes Plate Movement?

35. What Causes Plate Movement?
Convective Flow
The circulation of magma that pushes & pulls plates
Driving Force is heat

36. What is a Fault?

37. What is a Fault? Fracture in Earth where movement has taken place
Most times near Plate Boundaries

38. Parts of a Fault
Hanging Wall
Foot Wall

39. Parts of a Fault Hanging Wall Foot Wall Rock above the fault line
Rock below the fault line

40. What are the types of Faults?
Normal
Reverse
Thrust
Strike-Slip

41. Types of Faults
………………..
…………………

42. …………

43. Types of Faults Reverse Fault Normal Fault
Occurs when the hanging wall block moves up relative to the footwall block
Normal Fault
Occurs when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall block

44. Thrust Fault Strike-Slip Fault
A reverse fault with dips of less than 45 degrees
Strike-Slip Fault
Movement is horizontal; “side-by-side motion”

45. Evidence of Plate Tectonics

48. Evidence of Plate Tectonics
Paleomagnetism
Most persuasive evidence
Ancient magnetism found in the rocks
Records show a shift in the poles

49. Earthquake Patterns Ocean Drilling
Connection between deep-focus earthquakes and ocean trenches
Ocean Drilling
Young rocks are near ocean ridge crest
Oldest rocks are near the continental margins

50. Hot Spots
A concentration of heat in the mantle capable of producing magma, which rises to Earth’s surface
Supports that the plates move over Earth’s surface
Ex: Hawaiian Island Chain

51. Volcanoes and Earthquakes

52. Magma verse Lava?

53. Magma verse Lava Magma Lava Molten rock under the surface of Earth
Molten rock on the surface of Earth

54. Factors Affecting Eruption?

55. Factors Affecting Eruption
Magma Composition
Magma Temperature
Amount of Dissolved Gases

56. Viscosity of Magma

57. Viscosity of Magma Substance’s resistance to flow
Hotter the magma, more fluid and less viscous
Directly related to its silica content
More silica, greater its viscosity (slower movement)

58. Dissolved Gases Consist of :
More gases, the more _________ the eruption

59. Dissolved Gases Consists mostly of water vapor and carbon dioxide
More gases, the more violent the eruption

60. Pyroclastic Material

61. Pyroclastic Material Fragments ejected during eruptions
From very fine to several tons
Ex:
Volcanic Ash
Cinders (lapilli)
Volcanic Bombs

62. Other Eruption Results
Pyroclastic Flow
Lahar

63. Other Eruption Results
Pyroclastic Flow
Consist of hot gases, glowing ash, and large rock fragments
Races down the steep slope
Lahar
Mudflow that occurs when volcanic debris becomes saturated with water and rapidly moves down steep volcanic slopes

64. Ring of Fire

65. Ring of Fire
Area around the pacific ocean with extreme volcanic activity
This shows the Pacific Plate Boarder

66. Parts of an Earthquake
Focus
Epicenter
Fault

67. Parts of an Earthquake Focus Epicenter Fault
Point within Earth where the earthquake starts
Epicenter
Location on the surface directly above the focus
Fault
Associated with earthquakes activity where movement has occurred

68. Causes of Earthquakes
Elastic Rebound Hypothesis

69. Causes of Earthquakes Elastic Rebound Hypothesis
Release of built-up energy
Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in rock that has been subjected to great forces
When the strength of the rock exceeded, it suddenly breaks, causing the vibrations of an earthquake

70. Earthquake Waves
Two Main Types

71. Earthquake Waves Two Main Types Surface Waves Body Waves P-waves
S-waves

72. Surface Waves

73. Surface Waves Seismic waves that travel along Earth’s outer layer
Moves up & down and side to side
Most destructive
Last to arrive at the seismograph

74. Body Waves
P-Waves (primary waves)

75. S-Waves (secondary waves)

76. Body Waves P-Waves (primary waves)
They push (compress) and pull (expand) rocks in the direction the wave travels
Can travel through solids, liquids and gases
Fastest waves
First to the seismograph

77. S-Waves (secondary waves)
Shakes particles at right angles to their travel
Can only travel through solids
2nd to the seismograph

78. Locating Earthquakes
The difference in velocity of a P-Wave & S-Wave provides a way to locate the epicenter
Use a travel-time curve graph
Needs at least _______? seismograph station data

79. Locating Earthquakes
The difference in velocity of a P-Wave & S-Wave provides a way to locate the epicenter
Use a travel-time curve graph
Needs at least three seismograph station data

80. The Richter Scale

81. The Richter Scale Measures magnitude
Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave
A TEN-FOLD system
Largest earthquake record= 9.6 (CHILE)

82. Moment Magnitude Scale

83. Mercalli Intensity Scale

84. Moment Magnitude Scale
More precise
Amount of displacement that occurs along a fault zone
Most widely used
Estimates energy released by earthquakes

85. Mercalli Intensity Scale
How much damage occurs
Depends on:
Strength
Distance from the epicenter
Nature of the surface material
Building design

86. Earthquake Hazards

87. Earthquake Hazards Seismic Vibrations
Damage to building depends on several factors
Intensity of vibration
Duration of vibration
What type of material built on
Design of the structure

89. Liquefaction
Stable soil turns into a liquid that is not able to support building or other structures

91. Tsunami
Large ocean wave created by an earthquake

93. Landslides Fires Caused by ruptured gas lines
Greatest damage to structures
Sinking of the ground triggered by the vibration
Fires
Caused by ruptured gas lines