1. What Is Aggression?
“Any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.”
(Baron and Richardson, 1994)

2. Criteria for Aggression (Violence)
Aggression is a behavior.
Aggression involves harm or injury.
Aggression is directed toward another living organism (who doesn’t want pain).
Aggression involves intent to harm.
Aggression usually involves norm violation
* “assertiveness” vs. violence

3. Types of Aggression Hostile or reactive aggression
The primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm to another.
Instrumental aggression
Aggression occurring in the quest of some competitive goal.

5. Spectator Aggression associated with:
– small-scale, on-the-field aggressive acts;
– aroused conditions;
– alcohol use; and
– younger, disadvantaged male spectators (e.g., soccer gangs).

6. A special case of spectator aggression

7. Aggression in Sport Game reasoning and aggression
Many athletes view aggression as inappropriate in general but appropriate in the sport environment. This is called “bracketed morality.”

8. Aggression in Sport Athletic performance and aggression
No clear pattern has been found, but professionals must decide if they value “winning at all costs” at the cost of increased aggression.

9. Instinct Theory Causes of Aggression
Individuals have an innate instinct to be aggressive, which builds up until it must be expressed (directly or via catharsis).
[no support in sport]
variant: “athletes have too much testosterone”

10. Frustration– Aggression Theory
Causes of Aggression
Frustration– Aggression Theory
Frustration causes aggression.
[no support]

11. Social Learning Theory
Causes of Aggression
Social Learning Theory
Aggression is learned through observing others (modeling) and then having similar behavior reinforced.
[supported]
rivalry and retaliation…

12. Revised Frustration– Aggression Theory
Causes of Aggression
Revised Frustration– Aggression Theory
Combines elements of the frustration-aggression theory with the social learning theory.
[supported]

13. Causes of Aggression

14. Implications for Practice
Recognize when aggression is most likely to occur—when individuals are frustrated and aroused, often because they
– are losing,
– perceive unfair officiating,
– are embarrassed,
– are physically in pain, or
– are playing below capabilities.

15. Implications for Practice
Control aggression via stress or emotional-management training (logs; ABCs etc..)
Keep winning in perspective.
Distinguish between aggression (VIOLENCE) and assertive or intense play.
Teach nonviolent conflict resolution skills.
Teach appropriate behavior.
(continued)

16. Implications for Practice
Control spectator aggression. 1.
Develop strict alcohol-control policies. 2.
Immediately penalize spectators for aggressive acts…legal charges? 3.
Hire officials who don’t tolerate aggression. 4.
Inform coaches that aggression won’t be tolerated. 5.
Work with media not to glorify aggressive acts. (no coverage)