1. Hoofdstuk 8 Interfaces en interface-ontwerp Prof. dr. ir. Dirk Stroobandt Academiejaar 2004-2005

2. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -2- Inhoud (deel 2) Het belang van interconnecties Het belang van ingebed geheugen Het voorspellen van prestaties Architecturen voor complexe systemen –Processorarchitecturen –Herconfigureerbare hardware –Hergebruik van IP-kernen Interfaces en interface-ontwerp

3. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -3- Outline Interfacing basics Microprocessor interfacing –I/O Addressing –Interrupts –Direct memory access Arbitration Hierarchical buses Protocols –Serial –Parallel –Wireless

4. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -4- Embedded system functionality aspects –Processing Transformation of data Implemented using processors –Storage Retention of data Implemented using memory –Communication Transfer of data between processors and memories Implemented using buses Called interfacing Introduction

5. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -5- A simple bus bus structure ProcessorMemory rd'/wr enable addr[0-11] data[0-7] bus Wires: –Uni-directional or bi-directional –One line may represent multiple wires Bus –Set of wires with a single function Address bus, data bus –Or, entire collection of wires Address, data and control Associated protocol: rules for communication

6. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -6- Ports Conducting device on periphery Connects bus to processor or memory Often referred to as a pin –Actual pins on periphery of IC package that plug into socket on printed- circuit board –Sometimes metallic balls instead of pins –Today, metal “pads” connecting processors and memories within single IC Single wire or set of wires with single function –E.g., 12-wire address port bus ProcessorMemory rd'/wr enable addr[0-11] data[0-7] port

7. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -7- Timing Diagrams write protocol rd'/wr enable addr data t setup t write Most common method for describing a communication protocol Time proceeds to the right on x-axis Control signal: low or high –May be active low (e.g., go’, /go, or go_L) –Use terms assert (active) and deassert –Asserting go’ means go=0 Data signal: not valid or valid Protocol may have subprotocols –Called bus cycle, e.g., read and write –Each may be several clock cycles Read example –rd’/wr set low,address placed on addr for at least t setup time before enable asserted, enable triggers memory to place data on data wires by time t read read protocol rd'/wr enable addr data t setup t read

8. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -8- Basic protocol concepts Actor: master initiates, servant (slave) responds Direction: sender, receiver Addresses: special kind of data –Specifies a location in memory, a peripheral, or a register within a peripheral Time multiplexing –Share a single set of wires for multiple pieces of data –Saves wires at expense of time data serializingaddress/data muxing MasterServant req data(8) data(15:0) muxdemux MasterServant req addr/data req addr/data addrdata muxdemux addrdata req data 15:8 7:0 addrdata Time-multiplexed data transfer

9. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -9- Basic protocol concepts: control methods Strobe protocol Handshake protocol MasterServant req ack req data Master Servant data req data t access req data ack 1. Master asserts req to receive data 2. Servant puts data on bus within time t access 1 2 3 4 3. Master receives data and deasserts req 4. Servant ready for next request 1 2 3 4 1. Master asserts req to receive data 2. Servant puts data on bus and asserts ack 3. Master receives data and deasserts req 4. Servant ready for next request

10. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -10- A strobe/handshake compromise Fast-response case req data wait 13 4 1. Master asserts req to receive data 2. Servant puts data on bus within time t access 3. Master receives data and deasserts req 4. Servant ready for next request 2 Slow-response case MasterServant req wait data req data wait 1 3 4 1. Master asserts req to receive data 2. Servant can't put data within t access, asserts wait ack 3. Servant puts data on bus and deasserts wait 4. Master receives data and deasserts req 2 t access 5. Servant ready for next request 5 (wait line is unused)

11. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -11- ISA bus protocol – memory access Microprocessor MemoryI/O Device ISA bus ADDRESS CYCLE CLOCK D[7-0] A[19-0] ALE /MEMR CHRDY C1 C2 WAIT C3 C4 DATA ISA: Industry Standard Architecture –Common in 80x86’s Features –20-bit address –Compromise strobe/handshake control 4 cycles default Unless CHRDY deasserted – resulting in additional wait cycles (up to 6) memory-read bus cycle CYCLE CLOCK D[7-0] A[19-0] ALE /MEMW CHRDY C1 C2 WAIT C3 C4 DATA ADDRESS memory-write bus cycle

12. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -12- Microprocessor interfacing: I/O addressing A microprocessor communicates with other devices using some of its pins –Port-based I/O (parallel I/O) Processor has one or more N-bit ports Processor’s software reads and writes a port just like a register E.g., P0 = 0xFF; v = P1.2; -- P0 and P1 are 8-bit ports –Bus-based I/O Processor has address, data and control ports that form a single bus Communication protocol is built into the processor A single instruction carries out the read or write protocol on the bus

13. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -13- Compromises/extensions Parallel I/O peripheral –When processor only supports bus- based I/O but parallel I/O needed –Each port on peripheral connected to a register within peripheral that is read/written by the processor Extended parallel I/O –When processor supports port-based I/O but more ports needed –One or more processor ports interface with parallel I/O peripheral extending total number of ports available for I/O –e.g., extending 4 ports to 6 ports in figure ProcessorMemory Parallel I/O peripheral Port A System bus Port CPort B Adding parallel I/O to a bus- based I/O processor Processor Parallel I/O peripheral Port APort BPort C Port 0 Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Extended parallel I/O

14. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -14- Types of bus-based I/O: memory-mapped I/O and standard I/O Processor talks to both memory and peripherals using same bus – two ways to talk to peripherals –Memory-mapped I/O Peripheral registers occupy addresses in same address space as memory e.g., Bus has 16-bit address –lower 32K addresses may correspond to memory –upper 32k addresses may correspond to peripherals –Standard I/O (I/O-mapped I/O) Additional pin (M/IO) on bus indicates whether a memory or peripheral access e.g., Bus has 16-bit address –all 64K addresses correspond to memory when M/IO set to 0 –all 64K addresses correspond to peripherals when M/IO set to 1

15. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -15- Memory-mapped I/O vs. Standard I/O Memory-mapped I/O –Requires no special instructions Assembly instructions involving memory like MOV and ADD work with peripherals as well Standard I/O requires special instructions (e.g., IN, OUT) to move data between peripheral registers and memory Standard I/O –No loss of memory addresses to peripherals –Simpler address decoding logic in peripherals possible When number of peripherals much smaller than address space then high-order address bits can be ignored –smaller and/or faster comparators

16. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -16- ISA bus ISA supports standard I/O –/IOR distinct from /MEMR for peripheral read /IOW used for writes –16-bit address space for I/O vs. 20-bit address space for memory –Otherwise very similar to memory protocol CYCLE CLOCK D[7-0] A[15-0] ALE /IOR CHRDY C1 C2 WAIT C3 C4 DATA ADDRESS ISA I/O bus read protocol

17. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -17- Microprocessor interfacing: interrupts Suppose a peripheral intermittently receives data, which must be serviced by the processor –The processor can poll the peripheral regularly to see if data has arrived – wasteful –The peripheral can interrupt the processor when it has data Requires an extra pin or pins: Int –If Int is 1, processor suspends current program, jumps to an Interrupt Service Routine, or ISR –Known as interrupt-driven I/O –Essentially, “polling” of the interrupt pin is built-into the hardware, so no extra time!

18. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -18- Microprocessor interfacing: interrupts What is the address (interrupt address vector) of the ISR? –Fixed interrupt Address built into microprocessor, cannot be changed Either ISR stored at address or a jump to actual ISR stored if not enough bytes available –Vectored interrupt Peripheral must provide the address Common when microprocessor has multiple peripherals connected by a system bus –Compromise: interrupt address table

19. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -19- Interrupt-driven I/O using fixed ISR location 1(a): μP is executing its main program.1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000. 2: P1 asserts Int to request servicing by the microprocessor. 3: After completing instruction at 100, μP sees Int asserted, saves the PC’s value of 100, and sets PC to the ISR fixed location of 16. 4(a): The ISR reads data from 0x8000, modifies the data, and writes the resulting data to 0x8001. 5: The ISR returns, thus restoring PC to 100+1=101, where μP resumes executing. 4(b): After being read, P1 de- asserts Int. Time

20. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -20- Interrupt-driven I/O using fixed ISR location 1(a):  P is executing its main program 1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000. μP P1P2 System bus Int Data memory 0x80000x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC

21. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -21- Interrupt-driven I/O using fixed ISR location 2: P1 asserts Int to request servicing by the microprocessor μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x80000x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int 1

22. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -22- Interrupt-driven I/O using fixed ISR location 3: After completing instruction at 100,  P sees Int asserted, saves the PC’s value of 100, and sets PC to the ISR fixed location of 16. μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x80000x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int 100

23. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -23- μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x80000x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int Interrupt-driven I/O using fixed ISR location 4(a): The ISR reads data from 0x8000, modifies the data, and writes the resulting data to 0x8001. 4(b): After being read, P1 deasserts Int. 100 Int 0 P1 System bus P1 0x8000 P2 0x8001

24. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -24- Interrupt-driven I/O using fixed ISR location 5: The ISR returns, thus restoring PC to 100+1=101, where  P resumes executing. μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x80000x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int 100 +1 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... 100

25. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -25- Interrupt-driven I/O using vectored interrupt 1(a): μP is executing its main program.1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000. 2: P1 asserts Int to request servicing by the microprocessor. 3: After completing instruction at 100, μP sees Int asserted, saves the PC’s value of 100, and asserts Inta. 5(a): μP jumps to the address on the bus (16). The ISR there reads data from 0x8000, modifies the data, and writes the resulting data to 0x8001. 6: The ISR returns, thus restoring PC to 100+1=101, where μP resumes executing. 5(b): After being read, P1 deasserts Int. Time 4: P1 detects Inta and puts interrupt address vector 16 on the data bus.

26. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -26- Interrupt-driven I/O using vectored interrupt μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x8000 0x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC 100 Int Inta 16 1(a): P is executing its main program 1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000.

27. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -27- Interrupt-driven I/O using vectored interrupt μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x8000 0x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC 100 Inta 16 2: P1 asserts Int to request servicing by the microprocessor Int 1

28. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -28- Interrupt-driven I/O using vectored interrupt 3: After completing instruction at 100, μP sees Int asserted, saves the PC’s value of 100, and asserts Inta μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x8000 0x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int Inta 16 100 1 Inta

29. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -29- μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x8000 0x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int Inta 16 Interrupt-driven I/O using vectored interrupt 100 4: P1 detects Inta and puts interrupt address vector 16 on the data bus 16 System bus

30. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -30- Interrupt-driven I/O using vectored interrupt 5(a): PC jumps to the address on the bus (16). The ISR there reads data from 0x8000, modifies the data, and writes the resulting data to 0x8001. 5(b): After being read, P1 deasserts Int. μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x8000 0x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int Inta 16 100 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... P1P2 0x8000 0x8001 System bus 0 Int

31. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -31- Interrupt-driven I/O using vectored interrupt 6: The ISR returns, thus restoring the PC to 100+1=101, where the μP resumes μP P1P2 System bus Data memory 0x80000x8001 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Int 100 +1 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101: instruction... Main program... 100

32. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -32- Interrupt address table Compromise between fixed and vectored interrupts –One interrupt pin –Table in memory holding ISR addresses (maybe 256 words) –Peripheral doesn’t provide ISR address, but rather index into table Fewer bits are sent by the peripheral Can move ISR location without changing peripheral

33. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -33- Additional interrupt issues Maskable vs. non-maskable interrupts –Maskable: programmer can set bit that causes processor to ignore interrupt Important when in the middle of time-critical code –Non-maskable: a separate interrupt pin that can’t be masked Typically reserved for drastic situations, like power failure requiring immediate backup of data to non-volatile memory Jump to ISR –Some microprocessors treat jump same as call of any subroutine Complete state saved (PC, registers) – may take hundreds of cycles –Others only save partial state, like PC only Thus, ISR must not modify registers, or else must save them first Assembly-language programmer must be aware of which registers stored

34. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -34- Direct memory access Buffering –Temporarily storing data in memory before processing –Data accumulated in peripherals commonly buffered Microprocessor could handle this with ISR –Storing and restoring microprocessor state inefficient –Regular program must wait DMA controller more efficient –Separate single-purpose processor –Microprocessor relinquishes control of system bus to DMA controller –Microprocessor can meanwhile execute its regular program No inefficient storing and restoring state due to ISR call Regular program need not wait unless it requires the system bus –Harvard archictecture – processor can fetch and execute instructions as long as they don’t access data memory – if they do, processor stalls

35. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -35- Peripheral to memory transfer without DMA, using vectored interrupt 1(a): μP is executing its main program.1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000. 2: P1 asserts Int to request servicing by the microprocessor. 3: After completing instruction at 100, μP sees Int asserted, saves the PC’s value of 100, and asserts Inta. 5(a): μP jumps to the address on the bus (16). The ISR there reads data from 0x8000 and then writes it to 0x0001, which is in memory. 6: The ISR returns, thus restoring PC to 100+1=101, where μP resumes executing. 5(b): After being read, P1 deasserts Int. Time 4: P1 detects Inta and puts interrupt address vector 16 on the data bus.

36. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -36- Peripheral to memory transfer without DMA, using vectored interrupt 1(a):  P is executing its main program 1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000. μP P1 System bus 0x8000 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x0001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Data memory 0x00000x0001 16 Int Inta instruction

37. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -37- Peripheral to memory transfer without DMA, using vectored interrupt 2: P1 asserts Int to request servicing by the microprocessor μP P1 System bus 0x8000 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x0001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Data memory 0x00000x0001 16 Int Inta instruction 1 Int 100

38. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -38- Peripheral to memory transfer without DMA, using vectored interrupt 3: After completing instruction at 100,  P sees Int asserted, saves the PC’s value of 100, and asserts Inta. μP P1 System bus 0x8000 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x0001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Data memory 0x00000x0001 16 Int Inta instruction 100 Inta 1 100

39. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -39- Peripheral to memory transfer without DMA, using vectored interrupt (cont’) 4: P1 detects Inta and puts interrupt address vector 16 on the data bus. μP P1 System bus 0x8000 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x0001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Data memory 0x00000x0001 16 Int Inta instruction 100 16 System bus

40. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -40- μP P1 System bus 0x8000 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Data memory 0x00000x0001 16 Int instruction Inta Peripheral to memory transfer without DMA, using vectored interrupt (cont’) 5(a):  P jumps to the address on the bus (16). The ISR there reads data from 0x8000 and then writes it to 0x0001, which is in memory. 5(b): After being read, P1 de-asserts Int. 100 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... instruction RETI # ISR return System bus 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x0001, R0 19: ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... instruction RETI # ISR return 0x8000 P1 Data memory 0x0001 Int 0

41. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -41- μP P1 System bus 0x8000 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x8001, R0 19: RETI # ISR return ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... Program memory PC Data memory 0x00000x0001 16 Int instruction Inta Peripheral to memory transfer without DMA, using vectored interrupt (cont’) 6: The ISR returns, thus restoring PC to 100+1=101, where  P resumes executing. 100 +1 16:MOV R0, 0x8000 17:# modifies R0 18:MOV 0x0001, R0 19: ISR 100: 101:instruction... Main program... instruction RETI # ISR return

42. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -42- Peripheral to memory transfer with DMA 1(a): μP is executing its main program. It has already configured the DMA ctrl registers. 1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000. 2: P1 asserts req to request servicing by DMA ctrl. 7(b): P1 de-asserts req. Time 3: DMA ctrl asserts Dreq to request control of system bus. 4: After executing instruction 100, μP sees Dreq asserted, releases the system bus, asserts Dack, and resumes execution. μP stalls only if it needs the system bus to continue executing. 5: (a) DMA ctrl asserts ack (b) reads data from 0x8000 and (b) writes that data to 0x0001. 6:. DMA de-asserts Dreq and ack completing handshake with P1. 7(a): μP de-asserts Dack and resumes control of the bus.

43. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -43- Peripheral to memory transfer with DMA (cont’) 1(a):  P is executing its main program. It has already configured the DMA ctrl registers 1(b): P1 receives input data in a register with address 0x8000. Data memory μP DMA ctrlP1 System bus 0x8000 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC 100 Dreq Dack 0x00000x0001 100: No ISR needed! 0x0001 0x8000 ack req

44. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -44- Peripheral to memory transfer with DMA (cont’) 2: P1 asserts req to request servicing by DMA ctrl. 3: DMA ctrl asserts Dreq to request control of system bus Data memory μP DMA ctrlP1 System bus 0x8000 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC 100 Dreq Dack 0x00000x0001 100: No ISR needed! 0x0001 0x8000 ack req 1 P1 Dreq 1 DMA ctrlP1

45. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -45- Peripheral to memory transfer with DMA (cont’) 4: After executing instruction 100,  P sees Dreq asserted, releases the system bus, asserts Dack, and resumes execution,  P stalls only if it needs the system bus to continue executing. Data memory μP DMA ctrlP1 System bus 0x8000 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC 100 Dreq Dack 0x00000x0001 100: No ISR needed! 0x0001 0x8000 ack req Dack 1

46. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -46- Data memory μP DMA ctrlP1 System bus 0x8000 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC 100 Dreq Dack 0x00000x0001 100: No ISR needed! 0x0001 0x8000 ack req Data memory DMA ctrlP1 System bus 0x8000 0x00000x0001 0x8000 ack req Peripheral to memory transfer with DMA (cont’) 5: DMA ctrl (a) asserts ack, (b) reads data from 0x8000, and (c) writes that data to 0x0001. (Meanwhile, processor still executing if not stalled!) ack 1

47. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -47- Peripheral to memory transfer with DMA (cont’) 6: DMA de-asserts Dreq and ack completing the handshake with P1. Data memory μP DMA ctrlP1 System bus 0x8000 101: instruction... Main program... Program memory PC 100 Dreq Dack 0x00000x0001 100: No ISR needed! 0x0001 0x8000 ack req ack 0 Dreq 0

48. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -48- Arbitration: Priority arbiter Consider the situation where multiple peripherals request service from single resource (e.g., microprocessor, DMA controller) simultaneously - which gets serviced first? Priority arbiter –Single-purpose processor –Peripherals make requests to arbiter, arbiter makes requests to resource –Arbiter connected to system bus for configuration only Micro- processor Priority arbiter Peripheral1 System bus Int 3 5 7 Inta Peripheral2 Ireq1 Iack2 Iack1 Ireq2 22 6

49. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -49- Arbitration using a priority arbiter 1. Microprocessor is executing its program. 2. Peripheral1 needs servicing so asserts Ireq1. Peripheral2 also needs servicing so asserts Ireq2. 3. Priority arbiter sees at least one Ireq input asserted, so asserts Int. 4. Microprocessor stops executing its program and stores its state. 5. Microprocessor asserts Inta. 6. Priority arbiter asserts Iack1 to acknowledge Peripheral1. 7. Peripheral1 puts its interrupt address vector on the system bus 8. Microprocessor jumps to the address of ISR read from data bus, ISR executes and returns (and completes handshake with arbiter). 9. Microprocessor resumes executing its program. Micro- processor Priority arbiter Peripheral1 System bus Int 3 5 7 Inta Peripheral2 Ireq1 Iack2 Iack1 Ireq2 22 6

50. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -50- Arbitration: Priority arbiter Types of priority Fixed priority –each peripheral has unique rank –highest rank chosen first with simultaneous requests –preferred when clear difference in rank between peripherals Rotating priority (round-robin) –priority changed based on history of servicing –better distribution of servicing especially among peripherals with similar priority demands

51. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -51- Arbitration: Daisy-chain arbitration Arbitration done by peripherals –Built into peripheral or external logic added req input and ack output added to each peripheral Peripherals connected to each other in daisy-chain manner –One peripheral connected to resource, all others connected “upstream” –Peripheral’s req flows “downstream” to resource, resource’s ack flows “upstream” to requesting peripheral –Closest peripheral has highest priority PP System bus Int Inta Peripheral1 Ack_inAck_out Req_outReq_in Peripheral2 Ack_inAck_out Req_outReq_in Daisy-chain aware peripherals 0

52. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -52- Arbitration: Daisy-chain arbitration Pros/cons –Easy to add/remove peripheral - no system redesign needed –Does not support rotating priority –One broken peripheral can cause loss of access to other peripherals PP System bus Int Inta Peripheral1 Ack_inAck_out Req_outReq_in Peripheral2 Ack_inAck_out Req_outReq_in Daisy-chain aware peripherals 0 Micro- processor Priority arbiter Peripheral 1 System bus Int Inta Peripheral 2 Ireq1 Iack2 Iack1 Ireq2

53. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -53- Network-oriented arbitration When multiple microprocessors share a bus (sometimes called a network) –Arbitration typically built into bus protocol –Separate processors may try to write simultaneously causing collisions Data must be resent Don’t want to start sending again at same time –statistical methods can be used to reduce chances Typically used for connecting multiple distant chips –Trend – use to connect multiple on-chip processors

54. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -54- Multilevel bus architectures Processor-local bus –High speed, wide, most frequent communication –Connects microprocessor, cache, memory controllers, etc. Peripheral bus –Lower speed, narrower, less frequent communication –Typically industry standard bus (ISA, PCI) for portability Processor-local bus Micro- processor CacheMemory controller DMA controller BridgePeripheral Peripheral bus Don’t want one bus for all communication –Peripherals would need high-speed, processor-specific bus interface excess gates, power consumption, and cost; less portable –Too many peripherals slows down bus Bridge –Single-purpose processor converts communication between busses

55. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -55- Advanced communication principles Layering –Break complexity of communication protocol into pieces easier to design and understand –Lower levels provide services to higher level Lower level might work with bits while higher level might work with packets of data –Physical layer Lowest level in hierarchy Medium to carry data from one actor (device or node) to another Parallel communication –Physical layer capable of transporting multiple bits of data Serial communication –Physical layer transports one bit of data at a time Wireless communication –No physical connection needed for transport at physical layer

56. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -56- Parallel communication Multiple data, control, and possibly power wires –One bit per wire High data throughput with short distances Typically used when connecting devices on same IC or same circuit board –Bus must be kept short long parallel wires result in high capacitance values which requires more time to charge/discharge Data misalignment between wires increases as length increases Higher cost, bulky

57. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -57- Serial communication Single data wire, possibly also control and power wires Words transmitted one bit at a time Higher data throughput with long distances –Less average capacitance, so more bits per unit of time Cheaper, less bulky More complex interfacing logic and communication protocol –Sender needs to decompose word into bits –Receiver needs to recompose bits into word –Control signals often sent on same wire as data increasing protocol complexity

58. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -58- Wireless communication Infrared (IR) –Electronic wave frequencies just below visible light spectrum –Diode emits infrared light to generate signal –Infrared transistor detects signal, conducts when exposed to infrared light –Cheap to build –Need line of sight, limited range Radio frequency (RF) –Electromagnetic wave frequencies in radio spectrum –Analog circuitry and antenna needed on both sides of transmission –Line of sight not needed, transmitter power determines range

59. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -59- Error detection and correction Often part of bus protocol Error detection: ability of receiver to detect errors during transmission Error correction: ability of receiver and transmitter to cooperate to correct problem –Typically done by acknowledgement/retransmission protocol Bit error: single bit is inverted Burst of bit error: consecutive bits received incorrectly Parity: extra bit sent with word used for error detection –Odd parity: data word plus parity bit contains odd number of 1’s –Even parity: data word plus parity bit contains even number of 1’s –Always detects single bit errors, but not all burst bit errors Checksum: extra word sent with data packet of multiple words –e.g., extra word contains XOR sum of all data words in packet

60. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -60- Serial protocols: I 2 C I 2 C (Inter-IC) –Two-wire serial bus protocol developed by Philips Semiconductors nearly 20 years ago –Enables peripheral ICs to communicate using simple communication hardware –Data transfer rates up to 100 kbits/s and 7-bit addressing possible in normal mode –3.4 Mbits/s and 10-bit addressing in fast-mode –Common devices capable of interfacing to I 2 C bus: EPROMS, Flash, and some RAM memory, real-time clocks, watchdog timers, and microcontrollers

61. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -61- I2C bus structure SCL SDA Micro- controller (master) EEPROM (servant) Temp. Sensor (servant) LCD- controller (servant) < 400 pF Addr=0x01 Addr=0x02 Addr=0x03 D C STST ARTART A6A6 A5A5 A0A0 R/wR/w ACKACK D8D8 D7D7 D0D0 ACKACK STST OPOP From Servant From receiver Typical read/write cycle SDA SCL SDA SCL SDA SCL SDA SCL Start conditionSending 0Sending 1Stop condition

62. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -62- Serial protocols: CAN CAN (Controller area network) –Protocol for real-time applications –Developed by Robert Bosch GmbH –Originally for communication among components of cars –Applications now using CAN include: elevator controllers, copiers, telescopes, production-line control systems, and medical instruments –Data transfer rates up to 1 Mbit/s and 11-bit addressing –Common devices interfacing with CAN: 8051-compatible 8592 processor and standalone CAN controllers –Actual physical design of CAN bus not specified in protocol Requires devices to transmit/detect dominant and recessive signals to/from bus e.g., ‘1’ = dominant, ‘0’ = recessive if single data wire used Bus guarantees dominant signal prevails over recessive signal if asserted simultaneously

63. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -63- Serial protocols: FireWire FireWire (a.k.a. I-Link, Lynx, IEEE 1394) –High-performance serial bus developed by Apple Computer Inc. –Designed for interfacing independent electronic components e.g., Desktop, scanner –Data transfer rates from 12.5 to 400 Mbits/s, 64-bit addressing –Plug-and-play capabilities –Packet-based layered design structure –Applications using FireWire include: disk drives, printers, scanners, cameras –Capable of supporting a LAN similar to Ethernet 64-bit address: –10 bits for network ids, 1023 subnetworks –6 bits for node ids, e ach subnetwork can have 63 nodes –48 bits for memory address, each node can have 281 terabytes of distinct locations

64. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -64- Serial protocols: USB USB (Universal Serial Bus) –Easier connection between PC and monitors, printers, digital speakers, modems, scanners, digital cameras, joysticks, multimedia game equipment –2 data rates: 12 Mbps for increased bandwidth devices 1.5 Mbps for lower-speed devices (joysticks, game pads) –Tiered star topology can be used One USB device (hub) connected to PC –hub can be embedded in devices like monitor, printer, or keyboard or can be standalone Multiple USB devices can be connected to hub Up to 127 devices can be connected like this –USB host controller Manages and controls bandwidth and driver software required by each peripheral Dynamically allocates power downstream according to devices connected/disconnected

65. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -65- Parallel protocols: PCI Bus PCI Bus (Peripheral Component Interconnect) –High performance bus originated at Intel in the early 1990’s –Standard adopted by industry and administered by PCISIG (PCI Special Interest Group) –Interconnects chips, expansion boards, processor memory subsystems –Data transfer rates of 127.2 to 508.6 Mbits/s and 32-bit addressing Later extended to 64-bit while maintaining compatibility with 32-bit schemes –Synchronous bus architecture –Multiplexed data/address lines

66. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -66- Parallel protocols: ARM Bus ARM Bus –Designed and used internally by ARM Corporation –Interfaces with ARM line of processors –Many IC design companies have own bus protocol –Data transfer rate is a function of clock speed If clock speed of bus is X, transfer rate = 16 x X bits/s –32-bit addressing

67. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -67- Wireless protocols: IrDA IrDA –Protocol suite that supports short-range point-to-point infrared data transmission –Created and promoted by the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) –Data transfer rate of 9.6 kbps and 4 Mbps –IrDA hardware deployed in notebook computers, printers, PDAs, digital cameras, public phones, cell phones –Lack of suitable drivers has slowed use by applications –Windows 2000/98 now include support –Becoming available on popular embedded OS’s

68. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -68- Wireless protocols: Bluetooth Bluetooth –New, global standard for wireless connectivity –Based on low-cost, short-range radio link –Connection established when within 10 meters of each other –No line-of-sight required e.g., Connect to printer in another room

69. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -69- Wireless Protocols: IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11 –Proposed standard for wireless LANs –Specifies parameters for PHY and MAC layers of network PHY layer –physical layer –handles transmission of data between nodes –provisions for data transfer rates of 1 or 2 Mbps –operates in 2.4 to 2.4835 GHz frequency band (RF) –or 300 to 428,000 GHz (IR) MAC layer –medium access control layer –protocol responsible for maintaining order in shared medium –collision avoidance/detection

70. Dirk Stroobandt: Ontwerpmethodologie van Complexe Systemen 2004-2005 -70- Chapter Summary Basic protocol concepts –Actors, direction, time multiplexing, control methods General-purpose processors –Port-based or bus-based I/O –I/O addressing: Memory mapped I/O or Standard I/O –Interrupt handling: fixed or vectored –Direct memory access Arbitration –Priority arbiter (fixed/rotating) or daisy chain Bus hierarchy Advanced communication –Parallel vs. serial, wires vs. wireless, error detection/correction, layering –Serial protocols: I 2 C, CAN, FireWire, and USB; Parallel: PCI and ARM. –Serial wireless protocols: IrDA, Bluetooth, and IEEE 802.11.