1. Life-Span Development, Twelfth Edition
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Life-Span Development, Twelfth Edition
Chapter 1: Introduction

2. The Life-Span Perspective
Development: the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span
Involves growth and decline
Traditional Approach: emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little to no change in adulthood, and decline in old age
Life-Span Approach: emphasizes developmental change throughout childhood and adulthood
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3. The Life-Span Perspective
Life Span: based on oldest age documented
Currently 122 years
Life Expectancy: average number of years that a person can expect to live
Currently 78 years
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4. The Life-Span Perspective
Life-Span Perspective views development as:
Lifelong
Multidimensional
Multidirectional
Plastic
Multidisciplinary
Contextual
Development is a process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss
Development is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together
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5. The Life-Span Perspective
Development is Lifelong
Early adulthood is not the endpoint of development
No age period dominates
Development is Multidimensional
Consists of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions
Multiple components within each dimension
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6. The Life-Span Perspective
Development is Multidirectional
Some dimensions (or components of a dimension) expand, and others shrink
Development is Plastic
Plasticity: capacity for change
Development is Multidisciplinary
Development is of interest to psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers
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7. The Life-Span Perspective
Development is Contextual
All development occurs within a context (setting)
Each setting is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors
Contexts exert three types of influences:
Normative age-graded influences: similar for individuals in a particular age group
Normative history-graded influences: common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances
Non-normative life events: unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life
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8. The Life-Span Perspective
Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss
Development is a Co-Construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual
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9. Some Contemporary Concerns
Health and Well-Being
Parenting and Education
Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity
Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation
Ethnicity: cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language
Socioeconomic Status: a person’s position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
Gender: characteristics of people as males and females
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Social Policy Issues
Social Policy: a government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens
Children’s Issues
Benchmarks demonstrate that the U.S. is at or near the lowest rank for industrialized nations in the treatment of children (Edelman, 1997)
As of 2006, approximately 17.4% of U.S. children are living in poverty
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11. Children Exposed to Six Stressors73
Children Exposed to Six Stressors
Poor housing quality 49
Excessive noise 45
Crowding
Exposure to violence 32
Child separation
Family turmoil 24 21 16 14
Percentage 12 7 3
Poor children
Middle-income children
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Social Policy Issues
Older Adults
Number of older adults in the U.S. is growing dramatically
A significant increase will occur in the number of individuals in the 85-and-older group
Access to affordable, adequate health care is a significant issue
Many will need society’s help, as more older adults will be unmarried, childless, and living alone
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The Aging of America
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14. The Nature of Development
Development is the product of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
Biological: changes in an individual’s physical nature
Cognitive: changes in thought, intelligence, and language
Socioemotional: changes in relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality
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Developmental Changes Are a Result of Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
Biological processes
Cognitive processes
Socioemotional processes
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16. The Nature of Development
Developmental Period: a time frame in a person’s life that is characterized by certain features
Prenatal period: conception to birth (9 months)
Tremendous growth
Infancy: birth to months
Dependence upon adults
Development of many psychological activities
Early childhood: end of infancy to 5-6 years
Preschool years
Self-sufficiency and increased play
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17. The Nature of Development
Developmental Period (continued)
Middle and late childhood: 6-11 years
Reading, writing, and arithmetic
Focus on achievement and self-control
Adolescence: varying endpoints; from to years
Rapid physical changes
Pursuit of independence and identity
Early adulthood: late teens to early 30’s
Personal and economic independence
Selecting a mate
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18. The Nature of Development
Developmental Period (continued)
Middle adulthood: years
Social involvement and responsibility
Assisting the next generation
Late adulthood: 60’s-70’s to death
Life review
Adjustment to new social roles
Longest developmental span
“youngest old” vs. “oldest old”
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19. The Nature of Development
Four “Ages” of Development
First Age: Childhood and adolescence
Second Age: Prime adulthood (20’s through 50’s)
Third Age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age
Fourth Age: Approximately 80 years and older
The Significance of Age
Age and Happiness:
No specific age group reports more happiness or satisfaction than another
Each age period has its own stresses, advantages, and disadvantages
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Age and Happiness
100 80 60
Happy people (%) 40 20
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65 +
Age range (years)
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21. The Nature of Development
Conceptions of Age
How relevant is chronological age to understanding a person’s psychological development?
How should age be conceptualized?
Chronological age: number of years that have elapsed since birth
Biological age: a person’s age in terms of biological health
Psychological age: an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age
Social age: social roles and expectations related to a person’s age
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Developmental Issues
Nature and Nurture: the extent to which development is influenced by biological inheritance and/or environmental experiences
Nature proponents argue that an evolutionary and genetic foundation produces commonalities in growth and development
Nurture proponents emphasize the importance of both the biological and social environment
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Developmental Issues
Stability and Change: the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change
Stability: traits and characteristics are seen as the result of heredity and early life experiences
Change: traits and characteristics can be altered by later experiences
Role of early and later experiences is hotly debated
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Developmental Issues
Continuity and Discontinuity: focuses on whether development is either:
A process of gradual, cumulative change (continuous)
A set of distinct stages (discontinuous)
Evaluating Developmental Issues:
Most developmentalists acknowledge that development is not all-or-nothing
There is debate regarding how strongly each of these issues influences development
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25. Theories of Development
Scientific Method: A four-step process:
Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied
Collect research information (data)
Analyze data
Draw conclusions
Theory: an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions
Hypotheses: specific assertions and predictions that can be tested
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26. Theories of Development
Diverse but complementary theories are used for explaining life-span development:
Psychoanalytic theories
Cognitive theories
Behavioral and social cognitive theories
Ethological theory
Ecological theory
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27. Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic Theories: describe development as primarily unconscious
True understanding requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior
Early experiences with parents extensively shape development
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28. Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud’s Theory:
Focus of sexual impulses changes throughout development
Five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)
Adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflict within each stage
Modern theorists place less emphasis on sexual instincts and more on cultural experiences
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29. Psychoanalytic Theories
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30. Psychoanalytic Theories
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:
Focused on our desire to affiliate with other people
Believed that developmental change occurs throughout the life span
Proposed eight stages of development
Each stage comprises a crisis that must be resolved
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31. Psychoanalytic Theories
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32. Psychoanalytic Theories
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories:
Contributions:
Emphasis on a developmental framework, family relationships, and unconscious aspects of the mind
Criticisms:
Lack of scientific support
Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings
Negative image of people
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Cognitive Theories
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory:
Stresses conscious thoughts
Emphasizes the processes of organization and adaptation
Four stages of cognitive development in children
Each stage represents a qualitatively different way of understanding the world
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Cognitive Theories
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Cognitive Theories
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory:
Children actively construct their knowledge
Emphasizes how social interaction and culture guide cognitive development
Learning is based upon the inventions of society
Less-skilled persons learn from those who are more skilled
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Cognitive Theories
Information-Processing Theory:
Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it
Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information
Thinking is information processing
Individuals learn strategies for better information processing
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Cognitive Theories
Evaluating Cognitive Theories:
Contributions:
Positive view on development
Emphasis on the active construction of understanding
Criticisms:
Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages
Too little attention to individual variations
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38. Behavioral & Social Cognitive Theories
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories:
Behaviorism: we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured
Development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:
Consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence
A reward increases likelihood of behavior
A punishment decreases likelihood of behavior
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39. Behavioral & Social Cognitive Theories
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory:
Behavior, environment, and cognition are key factors in development
Observational learning: learning through observation
People cognitively represent the behavior of others
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40. Behavioral & Social Cognitive Theories
Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories:
Contributions:
Emphasis on scientific research and environmental determinants of behavior
Criticisms:
Little emphasis on cognition (Skinner)
Inadequate attention given to developmental changes
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Ethological Theory
Ethology: stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology and evolution
Characterized by critical or sensitive periods
Brought to prominence by Konrad Lorenz
Studied imprinting in geese
Bowlby stressed the importance of human attachment during the first year of life
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Ethological Theory
Evaluating Ethological Theory:
Contributions:
A focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development
Use of careful observations in naturalistic settings
Criticisms:
Too much emphasis on biological foundations
Critical and sensitive period concepts may be too rigid
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Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory: development reflects the influence of five environmental systems:
Microsystem: setting in which the individual lives
Mesosystem: relations between microsystems
Exosystem: links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context
Macrosystem: culture in which individuals live
Chronosystem: patterning of environmental events and transitions; sociohistorical circumstances
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Ecological Theory
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Ecological Theory
Evaluating Ecological Theory:
Contributions:
Systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems
Attention to connections between environmental systems
Criticisms:
Giving inadequate attention to biological factors
Too little emphasis on cognitive factors
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46. Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
No single theory can explain all of development
Every theory has contributed to our understanding
Eclectic orientation does not follow any one theoretical approach
Instead, it selects from each theory whatever is considered its best features
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47. Comparison of Theories
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Research Methods
Methods for Collecting Data:
Observation:
Laboratory: controlled setting that eliminates many complex “real-world” variables
Participants typically know they are being studied
Setting is unnatural
May not represent general population
Some individuals may be intimidated by laboratory setting
Naturalistic: observing behavior in real-world settings
Researcher makes no effort to manipulate or control the situation
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Research Methods
Methods for Collecting Data:
Survey and Interviews:
Standard sets of questions are used to obtain people’s attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic
Can be used to study a wide variety of topics
Participants may answer in a way that is considered socially desirable and acceptable
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Research Methods
Methods for Collecting Data:
Standardized Test:
Uniform procedures for administration and scoring
Most allow a person’s performance to be compared with that of others
Assumes consistency and stability across time and situations
Case Study:
In-depth look at a single individual
Difficult to generalize to others
May not be reliable
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Research Methods
Methods for Collecting Data:
Physiological Measures:
Many uses; technology is constantly improving
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): uses electromagnetic waves to construct images of brain tissue and biochemical activity
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Research Designs
Three main types: descriptive, correlational, and experimental
Descriptive: aims to observe and record behavior
Methods discussed so far are descriptive
Cannot prove causation, but can reveal important information
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Research Designs
Correlational: describes the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics
Correlation Coefficient: a number based on a statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables
Ranges from to -1.00
+ means a positive association; - means a negative association
Higher number indicates a stronger association
Correlation does not equal causation
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Research Designs
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Research Designs
Experimental Research:
Experiment: carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant
Can demonstrate cause and effect
Independent Variable: manipulated, influential, experimental factor
Dependent Variable: a factor that can change in an experiment, in response to changes in the independent variable
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Research Designs
Experimental Research:
Experimental Group: a group whose experience is manipulated
Control Group: a comparison group whose experience is not manipulated
Random Assignment: researchers assign participants to experimental and control groups by chance
Reduces the likelihood of preexisting differences between groups
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Research Designs
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Research Designs
Time Span Research:
Cross-Sectional: simultaneously compares individuals of different ages
Advantage: researcher does not have to wait for individuals to grow older
Disadvantage: does not give information about the aging process
Longitudinal Approach: studies the same individuals over a period of time, usually several years or more
Advantage: provides information about the aging process
Disadvantage: expensive and time-consuming
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Research Designs
Time Span Research:
Cohort Effects:
Cohort: a group of people who are born at a similar point in history and share similar experiences
Cohort effects: differences due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation, but not to actual age
Cross-sectional studies can show how different cohorts respond, but they may confuse age effects and cohort effects
Longitudinal research can study age changes, but only within one cohort
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60. Conducting Ethical Research
Informed Consent: all participants must know what their research participation will involve and what risks might develop
Confidentiality: researchers are responsible for keeping the data completely confidential and, if possible, anonymous
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61. Conducting Ethical Research
Debriefing: after the study, participants should be informed of the study’s purpose and methods that were used
Deception: researchers must ensure that deception will not harm participants, and that participants are fully debriefed
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62. Conducting Ethical Research
Minimizing Bias:
Gender Bias: preconceived notions about the abilities of women and men
Research can affect how people think about gender differences
Cultural and Ethnic Bias:
Life-span research needs to include more people from diverse ethnic groups
Ethnic gloss: using an ethnic label in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogenous than it really is
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