1. The Role of Death in Organizational Life Adam M. Grant, Ph.D. Land of the Sticky Heels Kimberly Wade-Benzoni, Ph.D. The (Blue) Devil’s Advocate Effects of Mortality Salience on Work Motivation

2. 2 Death is Pervasive in Organizations Personal mortality cues Personal mortality cues Dangerous jobs (Jermier et al., 1989) Dangerous jobs (Jermier et al., 1989) Illnesses and accidents (Zoller, 2003) Illnesses and accidents (Zoller, 2003) Vicarious mortality cues Vicarious mortality cues Exposure to others at risk (Molinsky & Margolis, 2005) Exposure to others at risk (Molinsky & Margolis, 2005) Deaths of executives (Worrell et al., 1986) Deaths of executives (Worrell et al., 1986) Disasters and crises (Weick, 1993; Pearson & Clair, 1998) Disasters and crises (Weick, 1993; Pearson & Clair, 1998) Symbolic mortality cues Symbolic mortality cues Organizational decline and death (Sutton, 1987) Organizational decline and death (Sutton, 1987) Downsizings (Kets de Vries & Balazs, 1997) Downsizings (Kets de Vries & Balazs, 1997)

3. 3 What Do We Know? Death is a threat—perhaps the most severe threat that employees ever face Death is a threat—perhaps the most severe threat that employees ever face Employees are strongly responsive to threats Employees are strongly responsive to threats (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981; Schachter, 1959) Recent calls for systematic investigation Recent calls for systematic investigation (Czarniawska, 1995; Sievers, 1993; Wade-Benzoni, 2006) Thus far, unanswered Thus far, unanswered Scholars have shied away from theoretical and empirical inquiry into the effects of mortality salience in organizations Scholars have shied away from theoretical and empirical inquiry into the effects of mortality salience in organizations

4. 4 Tonight’s Agenda Give overview of part of our theory paper Give overview of part of our theory paper Examines motivational consequences of mortality salience in organizations Examines motivational consequences of mortality salience in organizations Attempts to motivate organizational scholars to begin studying this phenomenon Attempts to motivate organizational scholars to begin studying this phenomenon Obtain your feedback Obtain your feedback What is interesting? What is interesting? What is unclear? What is unconvincing? What is unclear? What is unconvincing?

5. 5 Mortality Salience: A Brief History Moral philosophy Moral philosophy Humans naturally fear death (Hobbes, 1651) Humans naturally fear death (Hobbes, 1651) Existential philosophy Existential philosophy People experience anxiety, dread, and fear People experience anxiety, dread, and fear when they contemplate their own mortality (Pascal, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre) (Pascal, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre) Existential psychotherapy Existential psychotherapy Help people cope with awareness of Help people cope with awareness of mortality (Frankl, 1959; Yalom, 1980)

6. 6 Becker’s Contributions Cultural anthropologist wrote 3 books on mortality salience Cultural anthropologist wrote 3 books on mortality salience The birth and death of meaning (1971) The birth and death of meaning (1971) The denial of death (1973)– Pulitzer Prize The denial of death (1973)– Pulitzer Prize Escape from evil (1975) Escape from evil (1975) Awareness of death is a uniquely Awareness of death is a uniquely human (1) capability and (2) curse Cultural belief systems buffer Cultural belief systems buffer against existential anxiety

7. 7 Empirical Inquiry Begins 1980s: 3 social psychologists read Becker’s work and decided to test his ideas experimentally 1980s: 3 social psychologists read Becker’s work and decided to test his ideas experimentally Tom Pyszczynski, Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon Tom Pyszczynski, Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon Initial resistance Initial resistance “I'm absolutely certain this article will be of “I'm absolutely certain this article will be of no interest to any psychologist, living or dead.” ~Editor, American Psychologist Authors’ reply Authors’ reply “We had been hoping at least the dead “We had been hoping at least the dead might have shown some interest.”

8. 8 Two Decades Later Terror management theory is among the most generative perspectives in social psychology Terror management theory is among the most generative perspectives in social psychology Over 250 studies have tested and extended propositions about how people respond to Over 250 studies have tested and extended propositions about how people respond to awareness of their own mortality Greenberg, Koole, & Pyszczynski, 2004 Greenberg, Koole, & Pyszczynski, 2004 Pyszczynski, Solomon, & Greenberg, 2003 Pyszczynski, Solomon, & Greenberg, 2003 Core premise: basic existential dilemma Core premise: basic existential dilemma Desire for life Desire for life Awareness that death is inevitable Awareness that death is inevitable

9. 9 Terror Management Theory (TMT) To protect against paralyzing terror, people marshal “distal defense mechanisms” To protect against paralyzing terror, people marshal “distal defense mechanisms” (Pyszczynski et al., 1999, 2004) Create and cling to cultural worldviews Create and cling to cultural worldviews Render existence meaningful, coherent, permanent Render existence meaningful, coherent, permanent Offer standards for defining what is valuable Offer standards for defining what is valuable Confer literal or symbolic immortality Confer literal or symbolic immortality Defend personal worth by adhering to and advancing cultural worldviews Defend personal worth by adhering to and advancing cultural worldviews Protect against anxiety by connecting with and contributing to those that share worldviews, and attacking those with alternative views Protect against anxiety by connecting with and contributing to those that share worldviews, and attacking those with alternative views

10. 10 Mortality Salience Increases… Support for Bush and aggressive Support for Bush and aggressive counterterrorism policies (Landau et al., 2004) Donations to national but not international charities (Jonas et al., 2002) Donations to national but not international charities (Jonas et al., 2002) Optimism about unlikely victories in soccer (Dechesne et al., 2000) Optimism about unlikely victories in soccer (Dechesne et al., 2000) Displays of physical strength among athletes but not individuals who do not value strength (Peters et al., 2005) Displays of physical strength among athletes but not individuals who do not value strength (Peters et al., 2005)

11. 11 Further TMT Evidence Defenses of cultural worldviews and personal worth serve anxiety-buffering function Defenses of cultural worldviews and personal worth serve anxiety-buffering function (Pyszczynski et al., 2004) After inducing mortality salience, After inducing mortality salience, giving positive feedback reduces Self-reported anxiety Self-reported anxiety Physiological arousal Physiological arousal Effects of mortality salience (MS) are unique Effects of mortality salience (MS) are unique Do not occur in response to other forms of anxiety Do not occur in response to other forms of anxiety (pain, public speaking, failure)

12. 12 Implications for Organizational Life TMT focuses on three categories of MS effects TMT focuses on three categories of MS effects Motivated behavior Motivated behavior Group dynamics Group dynamics Self-esteem Self-esteem Correspond to three core domains of organizational behavior research Correspond to three core domains of organizational behavior research Work motivation (tonight’s focus) Work motivation (tonight’s focus) Organizational attachment Organizational attachment Self-evaluations Self-evaluations

13. 13 Work Motivation Psychological processes that direct, energize, and sustain action in organizations Psychological processes that direct, energize, and sustain action in organizations (Mitchell & Daniels, 2003) MS suggested to influence motivation (Sievers, 1993) MS suggested to influence motivation (Sievers, 1993) “Of all things that move man [sic], one of the principal ones is his terror of death” (Becker, 1973: 11) “Of all things that move man [sic], one of the principal ones is his terror of death” (Becker, 1973: 11) Our focus Our focus Goal-setting Goal-setting Task effort Task effort Escalation of commitment Escalation of commitment Reward sensitivities Reward sensitivities Prosocial behavior Prosocial behavior

14. 14 1. Goal-Setting Defining outcome objectives (Locke & Latham, 2002) Defining outcome objectives (Locke & Latham, 2002) MS evidence MS evidence Increased desire to make lasting contributions and feel connected with others (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992; Wade- Benzoni, 2006) Increased desire to make lasting contributions and feel connected with others (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992; Wade- Benzoni, 2006) Example: R. Buckminster Fuller Example: R. Buckminster Fuller “The larger the number for whom I work, the “The larger the number for whom I work, the more positively effective I become. Thus, it is obvious that if I work always and only for all humanity, I will be optimally effective.” Propositions Propositions P1a. MS increases the difficulty and ambitiousness of goals set. P1a. MS increases the difficulty and ambitiousness of goals set. P1b. MS increases participation and collaboration in goal-setting. P1b. MS increases participation and collaboration in goal-setting.

15. 15 2. Task Effort Amount of energy invested in work (Kanfer, 1991) Amount of energy invested in work (Kanfer, 1991) MS evidence MS evidence Increases desire to build legacy in own image Increases desire to build legacy in own image (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992; Wade-Benzoni, 2006) Example: Richard Dawkins Example: Richard Dawkins “We are going to die… Within decades we must close our eyes… Isn't it a noble, an enlightened way of spending our brief time in the sun, to work at understanding the universe and how we have come to wake up in it? This is how I answer when I am asked why I bother to get up in the mornings.” “We are going to die… Within decades we must close our eyes… Isn't it a noble, an enlightened way of spending our brief time in the sun, to work at understanding the universe and how we have come to wake up in it? This is how I answer when I am asked why I bother to get up in the mornings.” Proposition Proposition P2. The effect of MS on task effort is moderated by value congruence. MS increases (decreases) effort on value-congruent (incongruent) tasks. P2. The effect of MS on task effort is moderated by value congruence. MS increases (decreases) effort on value-congruent (incongruent) tasks.

16. 16 3. Escalation of Commitment Persisting in failing course of action (Staw & Ross, 1987) Persisting in failing course of action (Staw & Ross, 1987) MS evidence MS evidence Increases single-minded focus: compensatory conviction Increases single-minded focus: compensatory conviction and defensive zeal (McGregor, in press) Example: Mann Gulch disaster Example: Mann Gulch disaster “Told to discard the very things that are their reason “Told to discard the very things that are their reason for being there in the first place, the moment quickly turns existential. If I am no longer a firefighter, then who am I?” (Weick, 1993) Proposition Proposition P3. MS increases escalation of commitment P3. MS increases escalation of commitment to losing courses of action. to losing courses of action.

17. 17 4. Reward Sensitivities Tendency to be influenced by reinforcement contingencies (Staw, 1984) Tendency to be influenced by reinforcement contingencies (Staw, 1984) MS evidence MS evidence Increases concern for legacy symbols (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992; Pyszczynski et al., 2004) Increases concern for legacy symbols (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992; Pyszczynski et al., 2004) Decreases concern for wealth (Cozzolino et al., 2004) Decreases concern for wealth (Cozzolino et al., 2004) Example: near-death experiences Example: near-death experiences (Ring, 1984) Propositions Propositions P4a. MS increases sensitivity to rewards that symbolize status and legacies (public recognition, unique job titles, awards). P4a. MS increases sensitivity to rewards that symbolize status and legacies (public recognition, unique job titles, awards). P4b. MS decreases sensitivity to financial rewards. P4b. MS decreases sensitivity to financial rewards.

18. 18 5. Prosocial Behavior Efforts to benefit present vs. future generations Efforts to benefit present vs. future generations (Bazerman et al., 1998) MS evidence MS evidence Increases desire to make lasting Increases desire to make lasting contribution (Wade-Benzoni, 2006) Example: Alfred Nobel Example: Alfred Nobel Propositions Propositions P5a. MS decreases prosocial behavior toward present generation. P5a. MS decreases prosocial behavior toward present generation. P5b. MS increases prosocial behavior toward future generations. P5b. MS increases prosocial behavior toward future generations.

19. 19 Theoretical Contributions Offers novel, unifying explanation for apparently unrelated phenomena Offers novel, unifying explanation for apparently unrelated phenomena Identifies unexplored influences on work motivation (and organizational attachment and self-evaluations) Identifies unexplored influences on work motivation (and organizational attachment and self-evaluations) Challenges assumption that death awareness is solely destructive in organizations, highlighting hidden benefits of mortality salience Challenges assumption that death awareness is solely destructive in organizations, highlighting hidden benefits of mortality salience

20. 20 Questions and Reactions