1. Chinese Theories of Knowledge

2. Zhuangzi

3. Daoism: Zhuangzi (c. 350 BCE) Intellectual distinctions correspond to nothing in reality There’s no point to doing anything Zhu Xi: “Laozi still wanted to do something, but Zhuangzi didn’t want to do anything at all.”

4. Arguments for Skepticism Interdependence of the objective and subjective The unity of everything Universal variability The problem of the criterion The possibility of dreaming

5. Objective and Subjective Is it possible to become completely objective? Zhuangzi answers no, because subjectivity and objectivity are inevitably interlocked The objective and subjective depend on each other Zhuangzi concludes that the distinction between the subjective and the objective is incoherent But knowledge requires objectivity; so, knowledge is impossible

6. The Unity of Everything Distinctions should be rejected, because all things are at root identical Reject distinctions, take refuge in Dao, and place yourself in subjective relations to things Give up claims to objectivity Knowledge being impossible, stop pretending to know

7. Argument from Variability Variability: Things are perceived differently by different beings at different times Undecidability: There is no neutral way to determine which perceptions are trustworthy Skeptical thesis: Therefore, knowledge is impossible

8. Variability Variation in perception among different species, different people, even same person on different occasions How do we know which portray reality accurately?

9. Problem of the Criterion Undecidability: There is no neutral way to tell which perceptions ought to be trusted We need a criterion for determining this But where could we get it? Even if we could get one, we couldn’t justify it

10. Problem of the Criterion, 2 Is there a criterion of truth? To settle this, we need a criterion But that’s what’s at issue! Dogmatist must argue in a circle, Or face infinite regress

11. Possibility of Dreaming Zhuangzi: “Those who dream of the banquet, wake to lamentation and sorrow. Those who dream of lamentation and sorrow wake to join the hunt. While they dream, they do not know that they dream. Some will even interpret the very dream they are dreaming: and only when they awake do they know it was a dream.”

12. Possibility of Dreaming Zhuangzi: “Once upon a time, I, Zhuangzi, dreamt I was a butterfly, fluttering hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butterfly. I was conscious only of following my fancies as a butterfly, and was unconscious of my individuality as a man. Suddenly, I awaked, and there I lay, myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man.”

13. Possibility of Dreaming

15. Wang Chong (27-97 CE) Empiricism: all knowledge comes from experience A great opponent of superstition Naturalism: nature is spontaneous, acting according to its own laws without divine intervention or interference

16. Naturalism Natural events have no religious meaning Nature has no discernible purpose We can understand things only by understanding their causes And we can gain knowledge of those only through experience