1. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 1 Chapter 8 THINKING AND LANGUAGE Section 1: What Is Thinking?What Is Thinking? Section 2: Problem SolvingProblem Solving Section 3: ReasoningReasoning Section 4: Decision Making and JudgmentDecision Making and Judgment Section 5: LanguageLanguage

2. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 2 Chapter 8 Thinking is…… 1. thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information. Made possible through the use of symbols, concepts, and prototypes.

3. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 3 Chapter 8 Question: What are the three units of thought? THREE UNITS OF THOUGHT SYMBOLS – objects or acts that stand for something else CONCEPTS – mentally grouping together objects, events, or ideas that have similar characteristics such as dogs, horses, etc. PROTOTYPES – examples of concepts that best exemplify that concept Section 1: What Is Thinking?

4. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 4 Chapter 8 How do we solve problems? 2. algorithms: a specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem. Ex: formulas. 3. heuristics: rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us find the solution to a problem. They are shortcuts. Ex: C_ _ FF (cliff)

5. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 5 Chapter 8 4. incubation effect: When we arrive at the solution to a problem when we have not been consciously working on the problem. Ex: taking a break from math problem then suddenly coming up with the solution. 5. mental set: the tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems. Can sometimes solve a problem, can sometimes cause a problem. 6. functional fixedness: is the tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for.

6. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 6 Chapter 8 7. convergent thinking: thought is limited to available facts, one tries to narrow thinking to find the single best solution. 8. divergent thinking: one associates more freely to the various elements of a problem. One follows leads that run in various directions; perhaps one that will lead to the solution unexpectedly.

7. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 7 Chapter 8 Question: What steps can be used to solve problems? THE ABCDEs OF PROBLEM SOLVING A ssess the problem B rainstorm approaches to the problem C hoose the approach that seems most likely to work D o it – try the most likely approach E valuate the results Section 2: Problem Solving

8. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 8 Chapter 8 Question: How do deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning differ? DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING DIFFER 9. Deductive Reasoning – a conclusion is arrived at by reasoning from a general principle to a specific conclusion 10. Inductive Reasoning – a conclusion is arrived at by reasoning from many specific observations to a general principle 11. confirmation bias: tendency to prove, or confirm, one’s hypothesis rather than disprove it. Section 3: Reasoning

9. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 9 Chapter 8 Question: What strategies can be made in decision making? STRATEGIES IN DECISION MAKING Weighing the Pluses and Minuses – choosing among goals or courses of action to reach goals by using a balance sheet Shortcuts in Decision Making and Judgment – use heuristics or shortcuts The Framing Effect – refers to a way in which wording affects decision making Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment

10. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 10 Chapter 8 Question: What strategies can be made in decision making? HEURISTICS OR SHORTCUTS Representativeness Heuristic – making decisions about a sample according to the population that the sample appears to represent Availability Heuristic – making a decision on the basis of information that is available in the immediate consciousness Anchoring Heuristic – making a decision based on certain ideas or standards that a person holds and which hold an anchor for the person Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment

11. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 11 Chapter 8 Question: What are the basic elements of language? BASIC ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE Phonemes – basic sounds of a language Morphemes – units of meaning in language Syntax – way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences Section 5: Language

12. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 12 Chapter 8 Question: What are the three units of thought? Thinking Symbols Concepts Prototypes