1. Social Problems: Sexism and Gender Inequality

2. Gender Inequality as a Social Problem
Sexism: the subordination of one sex, female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex, male
Patriarchy: a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men
Though women comprise 51% of Canadians, they are called a minority group because they don’t have the resources of men. Women
Are victims of sexual assault
Earn 71 percent of what men earn

3. Defining Sex and Gender
Sex: biological differences between males and females.
Gender: the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males based on meanings, beliefs, and practices that a group associates with femininity or masculinity
Intersexed: having unrecognizable genitalia or both male and female genitalia
Transgendered: one’s gender not the same as biological sex

4. Sexism and Gender Inequality
Sexism refers to the range of attitudes, beliefs, policies, laws and behaviors that discriminate on the basis of gender
Results in a system of gender inequality
Power and Male Hegemony
Male hegemony refers to the political and ideological domination of woman in society

5. Sexism and Gender Inequality
Power and Male Hegemony
Males have greater access to:
Cultural prestige
Political authority
Corporate power
Wealth
Material comforts
Ideology plays a role in legitimizing male hegemony

6. Biological and Social Bases for Gender Roles
Gender roles: rights, responsibilities, expectations, and relationships of women and men in a society
At birth, males and females are distinguished by primary sex characteristics
At puberty, hormonal differences produce secondary sex characteristics

7. Biological and Social Bases for Gender Roles
To what extent are differences culturally determined?
Gender ideology: ideas of masculinity and femininity that are held to be valid in a particular society and time
Gendered division of labour: the process whereby productive tasks are separated on the basis of gender

8. Gender Inequality and Socialization
Agents of socialization:
Parents and family: treatment, clothes, toys, or chores
Peers: pressure for behaviour and aspirations
Religion
Media and language
Education:
Gender bias: favouritism toward one gender, e.g., aggressive boys and dependent girls get attention

9. The Family
Traditionally, the role of wife and mother has been a subordinate role in society
Increase in working wives and moms and the juggling of work and family
See Table 5.1 on Unpaid Housework (p.190)
On average, women do 4.3 hours daily while men do 2.8 hours
Women also responsible for bulk of senior care

10. Language and the Media Feminine mystique Masculine mystique
Language often reinforces traditional sex role stereotypes :
i.e. Policeman vs. police officer, or calling women “girls”
Media portrays men and women in traditional roles
Underrepresent women, and
Reinforce stereotypical ideas about women and physical attractiveness
Stereotypes are a source of prejudice and discrimination
Feminine mystique
Masculine mystique
Stereotypes place limits on us and on our behaviour

11. Organized Religion
Religion has reinforced secular traditions and gender roles in many cultures, including our own
Religion has been male dominated
In the last few decades some religions have begun to ordain women as ministers
Episcopalians
Presbyterians
Reformed Jews

12. Sexism in Schools Female achievement Girl’s sports
Today, there is more focus in schools on
Female achievement
Girl’s sports
More involvement in school politics
Gender gap in higher education and in certain disciplines is narrowing but still persists today
However, research show sexism still a significant factor in schools

13. Sexism in Schools (cont.)
Research results on sexism in schools shows that generally,
Teachers pay less attention to girls than boys
Girls lag behind in math and science scores
Girls tend not to choose careers in math and science
Textbooks and gender stereotypes still persist
Biased tests
Minority girls tend to be ignored
School counselors still channeling girls into sex typed occupations

14. However… “The Gender Gap” (2004) text p. 197
Montreal study on gender differences in achievement in school
Boys falling behind especially in language skills
More likely to drop out or not continue
Have more behavioural, learning and social problems in school
Study notes that girls see educational achievement as key to better life, whereas boys rely on traditional masculinity to get ahead

15. Contemporary Gender Inequality
Gender inequality is maintained by:
Individual sexism: anti-female prejudice by individuals
Institutionalized sexism:discrimination engaged in at the organizational level
Also, when inequality, prejudice and discrimination exist, the imbalance in power leads to sexual harassment

16. Gender Inequality and Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment: unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature
Occurs at work and school
Sexual harassment is also a growing problem in schools
The results of a recent U.S. survey found that 83 percent of girls and 79 percent of boys have been harassed
Both boys and girls are limited by sexual harassment and stereotypical notions

17. Gender Inequality and Work
Gendered division of paid work: women have high labour force participation, but are concentrated in different occupations.
Pink-collar ghetto: jobs held by women that are low-paying and semi-skilled.
Contingent work: part-time work, temporary work, and subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers, but detrimental to workers.
Years of work experience – women are more likely to have interruption in their work histories
Hiring and promotion practices
For minority women, there is even a larger wage gap

18. Gender Inequality and Work
Wage gap: disparity between women’s and men’s earnings
Pay equity: equal pay for work of equal or comparable (worth of the job) worth
Sexual harassment: unwelcome sexual attention at work

19. 2004 Census
Approximately 58% of women worked full time vs. 68% of men in Canada
83% of 2 parent families have 2 income earners
Women made up 46.8% of workforce
72.5% of women with children under 16 in the home work

20. 2004 Census
Average income
women $36,500
men $51,700
In 2004 women made 70.5 cent for every $1 men earned
3.4% of “clout” positions (CEO’s, presidents, etc.) of Fortune 500 companies held by women
At age 40, 90% of working men vs. 35% of working women had at least one child
Women still concentrated in teaching, nursing, service and clerical jobs (67% of employed women)

22. Gender Inequality and Work
“Glass Ceiling” and “Glass Escalator”:
Glass Ceiling: invisible barrier constructed by male management to prevent women from reaching top positions. Women do advance in the service sector
Glass Escalator: upward movement of men in women’s occupations disproportionate to their numbers

23. Gender Inequality and Unpaid Work
Double shift: women are wage earners and also do most of unpaid household work, now recorded in the census
90% of Canadians do unpaid work, but the majority, especially child care, is done by women

24. Gender Inequality and Unpaid Work
However, roles in homemaking have been changing
Women still continue to bear the primary responsibility for homemaking
Husbands and fathers with working wives that support non-traditional roles are taking on a larger share of homemaking responsibilities

25. Perspectives: Symbolic Interactionist
Focus on socialization and labelling
Also note existence of double standard
Language is extremely important in defining social realities
Linguistic sexism: communication that ignores, devalues, or makes sex objects of women.
Genderlects: men’s and women’s styles and contents of language differ.
Non-verbal communication: men control more space, than women, including sexual harassment

26. Perspectives: Functionalist
Early thinking (Parsons, Kingsley-Davis):
Men are more suited to instrumental (i.e., goal-oriented) tasks
Women perform expressive tasks
This was functional for society
More recently:
Differences in human capital of men and women (capital diminishes with time off for child-bearing and childcare)

27. Perspectives Conflict
Social life is a continuous struggle in which the powerful seek to control economic and social resources
Gender inequality results from capitalism and private ownership of the means of production
A result of structural and historical relations
Beneficial to capitalists to have unpaid female workforce

28. Perspectives: Feminist
Socialist: men gain control over property and women
Radical: men’s oppression of women is deliberately supported by media and religion
Liberal: inequality is rooted in gender-role socialization
Black, Indigenous, and other women of colour face inequalities compounded by racialization, class, and gender

29. Can Gender Inequality be Reduced?
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective:
Redefine social realities with language
Functionalist Perspective:
Redefine gender roles
Educate women about how their decisions affect human capital
Enforce existing anti-discrimination legislation and use the Canadian Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms

30. Can Gender Inequality be Reduced?
Conflict Perspective:
Marxist: abolish capitalism
Feminist:
Socialist Feminists: abolish capitalism and create a new economy
Liberal Feminists: change gender socialization
Radical Feminists: abolish patriarchy
Black and other feminists: treat all women more equitably