1. BIO 132 Neurophysiology Lecture 37 Sex and the Brain

2. Asexual reproduction consists of a cell dividing into two genetically identical offspring (clones) Asexual reproduction consists of a cell dividing into two genetically identical offspring (clones) Bacteria reproduce this way Bacteria reproduce this way Sexual reproduction requires the genetic material from two individuals combine to make a new genetically unique offspring. Sexual reproduction requires the genetic material from two individuals combine to make a new genetically unique offspring. Advantage: Advantage: Increased diversity in the population offers protection against disasters Increased diversity in the population offers protection against disasters Disadvantage: Disadvantage: Slower proliferation and is costlier Slower proliferation and is costlier Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction

3. The Y-chromosome (only found in men) will change the gender from the default female to male. The Y-chromosome (only found in men) will change the gender from the default female to male. The SRY-gene (sex-determining region of the Y- chromosome) turns on other sex-determining genes. The SRY-gene (sex-determining region of the Y- chromosome) turns on other sex-determining genes. Genitalia of men are derived from the same tissue as women. The presence of high levels of testosterone trigger the transformation of the tissue. Genitalia of men are derived from the same tissue as women. The presence of high levels of testosterone trigger the transformation of the tissue. Clitoris becomes the head of the penis Clitoris becomes the head of the penis Labia fuse to form scrotum Labia fuse to form scrotum Ovaries descend and become testes Ovaries descend and become testes Sex and Gender

4. Sexual behavior in humans is a complex thing that most certainly has powerful genetic and social components. Sexual behavior in humans is a complex thing that most certainly has powerful genetic and social components. Not well understood. Not well understood. Sexual Behavior in non-human animals have less social pressures and is easier to study. Sexual Behavior in non-human animals have less social pressures and is easier to study. Sexual Behavior

5. Monogamy (“one spouse”) – a male and female form a tightly bound relationship that includes exclusive mating with each other. Monogamy (“one spouse”) – a male and female form a tightly bound relationship that includes exclusive mating with each other. Only 3% of mammals practice monogamy Only 3% of mammals practice monogamy 12% of primates practice monogamy 12% of primates practice monogamy 90% of bird species practice monogamy 90% of bird species practice monogamy Promiscuity – mating with many partners Promiscuity – mating with many partners Polygyny (“many women”) and Polyandry (“many men”). Polygyny (“many women”) and Polyandry (“many men”). Polygyny is far more common than is polyandry Polygyny is far more common than is polyandry Monogamy and Promiscuity

6. Choosing an animal model Choosing an animal model Voles (very similar to mice) were chosen to be studied because there are two species that are very similar (physically and genetically) in most respects except that one species uses promiscuous and the other uses monogamous sexual behavior Voles (very similar to mice) were chosen to be studied because there are two species that are very similar (physically and genetically) in most respects except that one species uses promiscuous and the other uses monogamous sexual behavior Prairie Vole – Monogamous Prairie Vole – Monogamous Male forms a tight pair-bound with female right after mating Male forms a tight pair-bound with female right after mating Both parents live in same nest and raise offspring Both parents live in same nest and raise offspring Montane Vole – Promiscuous Montane Vole – Promiscuous Male forms no pair-bound and tries to mate with many females Male forms no pair-bound and tries to mate with many females Male lives in an isolated nest and takes no part in raising offspring Male lives in an isolated nest and takes no part in raising offspring Females care for offspring only briefly Females care for offspring only briefly Studying Sexual Behavior

7. Studies looking at the size of different brain areas were not significantly different between the two species. Studies looking at the size of different brain areas were not significantly different between the two species. Studies looking at differences in receptors found little difference between the two species except for the receptor locations of oxytocin and anti- diuretic hormone (ADH). Studies looking at differences in receptors found little difference between the two species except for the receptor locations of oxytocin and anti- diuretic hormone (ADH). Brain Differences in Voles

8. Oxytocin/ADH Receptor Mapping Montane VolesPrairie Voles Oxytocin receptors ADH receptors

9. Different neural pathways are activated by oxytocin and ADH in the two vole species. Receptor mapping of female Montane voles shows plasticity, temporarily looking more like that of the Prairie voles (monogamous) during the brief period they were raising young. Receptor mapping of female Montane voles shows plasticity, temporarily looking more like that of the Prairie voles (monogamous) during the brief period they were raising young. Pharmacological studies were needed to further test the hypothesis that oxytocin and ADH are key components of sexual behavior in voles. Pharmacological studies were needed to further test the hypothesis that oxytocin and ADH are key components of sexual behavior in voles. Different Neural Pathways Activated

10. It was found that in Prairie voles levels of ADH rise sharply in males and levels of oxytocin rise sharply in females during copulation (sex). Further evidence: Further evidence: Injection of male Prairie voles with an ADH antagonist before copulation abolished the pair-bonding and paternal care. Injection of male Prairie voles with an ADH antagonist before copulation abolished the pair-bonding and paternal care. Oxytocin injections had no effect. Oxytocin injections had no effect. Injection of male Prairie vole without copulation but in the presence of a female resulted in the forming of a tight pair- bond. Injection of male Prairie vole without copulation but in the presence of a female resulted in the forming of a tight pair- bond. In Prairie voles, levels of ADH in males and oxytocin in females was proportional to the time they spent parenting. In Prairie voles, levels of ADH in males and oxytocin in females was proportional to the time they spent parenting. Pharmacological Evidence

11. Injection of Montane vole males and females with either ADH or oxytocin, or injection of the antagonists of the hormones had no significant effect on sexual behavior. The reason is probably that the Montane voles do not have the receptors in the right brain areas to elicit the behavior seen in the Prairie voles. Imagine the implications if injecting a male human with a single hormone caused him to form a tight life-long pair- bond with the first female he saw. Imagine the implications if injecting a male human with a single hormone caused him to form a tight life-long pair- bond with the first female he saw. Pharmacological Evidence in Montanes

12. Many studies have looked for physical differences in the brains of human men and women but nothing concrete or conclusive has been found. In humans are women better than men at some mental tasks and vice versa? Evidence seems to suggest that on average… women are better at certain verbal and language skills: e.g. naming objects of the same color, listing words starting with the same letter, verbal memory, etc. Men are better at spatial and mathematical skills: 3D puzzles, reading maps, learning mazes, etc. Gender Differences in Cognition

13. Differences in performance between individuals of the same gender are far larger than difference across the genders. Pick any man and woman and there is almost a 50/50 chance that one will be better at verbal or spatial tasks. Not all studies reveal the same results. It is unclear how much social influence and upbringing plays a role. Cautionary Notes

14. There are real and significant differences in the brains of men and women. How do we know this? All behavior comes from the brain and men and women behave differently. Therefore, there must be difference in the brains. If genitalia development is very different in men and women and strongly effected by testosterone, then perhaps brains are as well. Sex Hormones and Behavior

15. Evidence from other animals supports the idea that testosterone levels during development masculinize the brain, leading to male-like behavior. If a female rat is injected with high levels of testosterone during her pregnancy, female rat offspring show male- like behavior. Mount other females Overly aggressive Show no maternal instincts Mother not affected – her brain was already developed Male offspring not affected – they already had high testosterone levels Masculinization of the Brain

16. Pregnant cows can have twin calves that are male and female. If some of the testosterone from the male twin reaches the female twin during development, she will have non-functioning ovaries and show bull-like behaviors as an adult. Farmers have long recognized this and call the female a “Freemartin”. Masculinization of the Brain (cont)

17. Women have two X sex chromosomes (XX) Men have one X and one Y sex chromosome (XY) The SRY gene (found only on the Y-chromosome) turns on genes and leads to the expression of testis- determining factor which turns ovaries into testes. Testes produce male sex hormones (androgens) like testosterone. Androgens affect changes in nearly all tissues (including the brain) during development. Pathway of Masculinization

18. Androgen insensitivity – Males (XY) that have testes and produce androgens but lack androgen receptors because of a genetic defect on the X chromosome. (1 in 13,000 births) Individuals appear female Have vagina, clitoris, labia (but no menstruation; infertile) Develop breasts and a female body shape Individuals behave like a female Consider themselves women, dress and act like women Choose men as sex partners Masculinization Errors in Humans

19. Androgen Insensitivity

20. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) – Females (XX) that have overdeveloped adrenal glands at birth that produce an excess of testosterone. (1 in 13,000 births) Extent of the syndrome dependent on the levels of testosterone during development. Individuals have ovaries but have intermediate-sized external genitalia (between size of penis and clitoris). Surgery and medication are the usual treatments Individuals more likely to have “male” traits Tomboyish, aggressiveness, etc. Most are heterosexual but a greater proportion than average are homosexual. Masculinization Errors in Humans