1. Observed structure of the mean planetary-scale extratropical circulation
1. surface energy balance disparities
2. mean sea-level structure
3. mean structure aloft
4. baroclinic variability
5. the movement of synoptic-scale systems
The images shown herein are based on NCEP/NCAR reanalysis dataset,
accessed thru the Climate Diagnostics Center website.

2. We aim to answer these questions:
Northern hemisphere
polar stereographic view
We aim to answer these questions:
What explains the observed climatological SLP (sea level pressure) distribution and its seasonal variation?
What explains the “upper-level” GP height and flow pattern?
How do the GP height patterns relate to temperature?
How does the upper-level structure relate to the surface lows and highs?
How do upper-level trofs move in the baroclinic storm track?

3. Suggested further reading
Holton Chapter 6.1
Bluestein 1993, esp.
section [Climatology of cyclogenesis and anticyclogenesis]
section [Climatology of lows and highs]
Palmen and Newton (1969)
various chapters are useful. The book is somewhat outdated, but it is very legible.
Peixoto and Oort (1992)
4.1 transient and stationary eddies
7.2 mean temperature structure
7.3 mean height structure
7.4 mean atmospheric circulation
A very introductory, descriptive overview of the atmospheric general circulation (Word file).

4. 1. background basics: the Earth’s energy budget (global, annual mean)
the units are in % of the TOA incoming solar radiation, i.e. S/4 (S=solar constant = 1380 W/m2)
R = Sn+ Ln
R  H + LE
surface energy terms:
R : net radiation
Sn: net solar radiation
Ln : net terr. radiation
H: sensible heat flux
LE: latent heat flux
and
R = 51 –21
= 30
R =
= 30
+30 net radiation
-30

5. The net solar radiation varies considerably with latitude and season

6. En = Sn + Ln -H-LE En net surface energy flux En zonal mean
net incoming solar radiation Sn
En = Sn + Ln -H-LE
net outgoing terrestrial radiation (-Ln)
note: if the x-axis was plotted linearly in terms of surface area (R2 cosf dl df, with R=earth radius, f=latitude and l=longitude), then the green-shaded area would equal the orange one.
note the linear scale En
Source: Trenberth and Caron 2001: Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports. Journal of Climate, 14, 3433–3443
proportional to Earth surface area

7. PW: petawatt or 1015 W total atmospheric What about the shortfall??
The required total heat transport in order to maintain an annual-mean steady state (RT), and estimates of the total atmospheric transport AT from NCEP and ECMWF re-analyses
atmospheric
What about the shortfall??
Answer: that heat is transported by oceans
Seasonal variation of the zonal mean of the meridional heat transport by the atmosphere
Source: Trenberth and Caron 2001: Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports. Journal of Climate, 14, 3433–3443
PW: petawatt or 1015 W

8. latitude Ocean heat transport
solid: zonal annual mean; dashed: ±1s (standard deviation)
-30
+30
latitude
Source: Trenberth and Caron 2001: Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports. Journal of Climate, 14, 3433–3443

9. The poleward energy transfer that is needed to offset the pole-to-equator net radiation imbalance is accomplished partly by the troposphere, partly by the oceans.
annual mean,
northern hemisphere
(ºN)
this graph seems to overestimate the heat transport by oceans (Source: Ackerman and Knox 2003)

10. Seasonal march of Sn, Ln and R
Note:
- the latitudinal variation of Sn is far larger than that of Ln and dominates that of R
- the zonal asymmetry of R (land-sea contrast) is rather small
- the desert areas over land are radiatively deficient (anomalously low R for their latitude, on account of the large Ln loss)

11. Seasonal march of surface energy fluxes
Note how LE and H vary tremendously with season, between land and ocean, and even over land and over ocean. H and LE tend to compensate each other. Their variation can be explained in terms of forested regions vs deserts, warm vs cold ocean currents, the sea ice edge, continental airmasses advected over water, etc. Note that oceans absorb and release far more heat than land (“storage change”)

12. seasonal march of surface air temperature
note that the amplitude of the annual temperature range is higher at:
- higher latitudes
- over land rather than over water [this does NOT occur in terms of net radiation Rn]
- over large land masses, especially their eastern side

13. 2. Structure of SLP, winds, temperature seasonal march of sea level pressure and sfc winds
northern oceans:
polar lows: Aleutian, Icelandic
subtropical highs: Pacific, Bermuda
northern continents:
- winter highs: Siberian, Intramtn
- summer lows: Pakistan, Sonoran
southern oceans:
- circumpolar (southern) low
- subtropical highs (3 oceans)
observations:
- A see-saw SLP variation dominates over the northern continents, with highs in winter and lows in summer. The seasonal variation of the polar lows and subtropical highs over the northern oceans is also large, and is in opposition to SLP variations over land at corresponding latitudes.
- The southern hemisphere is far more zonally symmetric.
- Note the extremely low SLP around the Antarctic ice dome.

14. polar perspective The following plots are all polar stereographic.
Either winter or summer is shown, either the NH or SH.
Some maps display ‘zonal anomalies’, i.e. the departures from the zonal (constant latitude) mean
𝜑 ′ 𝑙𝑜𝑛,𝑙𝑎𝑡 =𝜑 𝑙𝑜𝑛,𝑙𝑎𝑡 − φ (𝑙𝑎𝑡)

15. SL pressure
NH winter

16. 1000 mb height NH winter 𝑝= 𝑝 𝑆𝐿 𝑒 − 𝑍 1000 /𝐻 =1000 𝑚𝑏
What SLP is that?
Z1000 = 280 m
𝑝= 𝑝 𝑆𝐿 𝑒 − 𝑍 1000 /𝐻 =1000 𝑚𝑏
answer: pSL ~1035 mb

17. 1000 mb temperature
NH winter

18. keep the magnitude of the zonal anomalies in mind
1000 mb temperature, NH winter departure from zonal mean
keep the magnitude of the zonal anomalies in mind

19. hydrostatic balance implies
negative surface temperature anomaly  high SLP
positive surface temperature anomaly  low SLP
Proof this assuming a flat pressure surface above the cold (warm) anomaly. The depth of this anomaly typically is ~ 2km.
Type equation here.
800 mb
height
warm Z large
cold Z small
ground
(sea level)
1000 mb
low
high
𝑍 1000→850 = 𝑅 𝑇 𝑔 ln

20. 1000 mb height
guess when

21. keep the magnitude of the zonal anomalies in mind
1000 mb temperature, NH summer
departure from zonal mean
keep the magnitude of the zonal anomalies in mind

22. 1000 mb height, SH
guess when
note how the zonally rather symmetric subtropical high is interrupted over land

23. 1000 mb temperature, SH summer departure from zonal mean
note the subtropical warm pools over land, coincident with a low SLP anomaly
note the unusually low SSTs in the eastern subtropical ocean basins

24. 1000 mb height, SH
guess when

25. 1000 mb height, SH winter!
400 m ~1050 mb

26. Antarctic high removed
1000 mb height, SH
Antarctic high removed
ignored

27. 1000 mb temperature
SH winter

28. note that these zonal anomalies are relatively small
1000 mb temperature, SH winter
departure from zonal mean
ignored
note that these zonal anomalies are relatively small

29. 3. upper-level climatological structure
focus on winter in the northern hemisphere (NH)

30. seasonal march of the 500 mb height wind speed

31. 500 mb height NH winter 1000 hPa temperature
note the seasonal-mean trofs, coincident with the cold anomalies at low levels
1000 hPa temperature

32. 500 mb height (zonal anomaly) NH winter
two quasi-stationary trofs
 wavenumber 2 pattern

33. Temperature 850 mb, NH winter

34. mb, NH winter
m s-1
m s-1

35. Verify qualitatively that climatological fields are roughly in thermal wind balance. For instance, look at the meridional variation of temperature with height (in Jan)

36. Around ºN, temperature drops northward, therefore westerly winds increase in strength with height

37. thermal wind
The meridional temperature gradient is large between 30-50ºN and mb
Therefore the zonal wind
increases rapidly from
1000 mb up to 300 mb

38. Question:
Why, if it is colder at higher latitude, doesn’t the wind continue to get stronger with altitude ?

39. There is definitively a jet ...

40. Answer: above 300 mb, it is no longer colder at higher latitudes...
tropopause

41. Tropopause pressure (hPa), NH winter

42. Wind 300 mb, NH winter
80 W

43. Zonal-mean wind, 80ºW, troposphere and lower stratosphere

44. hPa, NH winter B A

45. section B, West Coast
temperature
West Coast of N America
tropopause

46. section B, West Coast
zonal wind speed
West Coast of N America
STJ
PFJ

47. section A, Japan
temperature
Japan
tropopause

48. the polar-front jet (PFJ) has merged with the subtropical jet (STJ)
section A, Japan
zonal wind speed
Japan
the polar-front jet (PFJ) has merged with the subtropical jet (STJ)

49. Wind 300 mb, NH winter STJ PFJ PFJ STJ
note that at most longitudes (esp. Asia and the Pacific), a single jet is present
STJ
PFJ
PFJ
STJ

50. GP 300 mb, NH winter

51. Potential vorticity @345 K
stratospheric air
tropospheric air

52. Schematic zonal-mean cross section (after Palmen & Newton)
 ITCZ

53. The Palmen-Newton model has three meridional circulation cells in each hemisphere
Note that the three-cell pattern ignores seasonal variation and land-sea contrast.

54. mean meridional circulation 500 mb vertical velocity
100 units ~ 1 cm s-1
note that blue is upward motion (w<0)
note the rising motion near the ITCZ and subtropical sinking, the latter mainly in the winter hemisphere
note the seasonal march of the ITCZ (monsoon)
note the rising motion in the baroclinic storm track
note the sinking (rising) on the lee (upwind) side of mountain ranges

55. How strong are the meridional cells? (zonal mean)
Jan
NH winter
Hadley
Ferrel
note the broad belt of subsidence (12-52ºN) in winter and the broad belt of ITCZ ascent (0-30ºN) in summer.
ITCZ
In the NH winter, over continents, the northern Hadley cell rising branch crosses the Equator into the SH ITCZ,
and its sinking branch extends between 12-50ºN
July
Ferrel
NH summer NH
Hadley SH
Hadley
Effectively ascent dominates in the summer hemisphere, and sinking in the winter hemisphere, and the Hadley cell that straddles the equator is the strongest.
ITCZ

56. ageostrophic flow & secondary circulation near jet streak
Does this synoptic pattern apply to the mean circulation?

57. Wind 300 hPa, NH winter
look for evidence of a secon-dary meridional circulation around Japan’s jet streak A B

58. Circulation, Section A

59. Specific humidity, Section A
Thermally direct! x
Jet stream

60. Precipitation rate Jet core ITCZ
Note: the vertical velocity field in jet cores will be revisited later for synoptic jets.
Jet core
ITCZ

61. 4. SLP and 500 m height intraseasonal variability A 3-10 day bandpass filter is used to highlight ‘synoptic’ disturbances. This filter will highlight storms due to baroclinic instability* (the midlatitude ‘storm track’) *In theory this may include tropical cyclones, but they are rare

62. SLP variability (3-10 day)
Northern hemisphere storm track, SLP, winter
Northern hemisphere storm track, SLP, summer
hPa
hPa
Northern hemisphere storm track, 500 mb, winter
Northern hemisphere storm track, 500 mb, summer
hPa m m

63. Southern hemisphere storm track, SLP, winter
hPa

64. Southern hemisphere storm track, SLP, summer
hPa

65. summary: 3-10 day variability
there is a ‘baroclinic storm’ track between 40-60º latitude
storms appear vertically coupled
1000 mb variability similar to 500 mb variability
storm track intensity (synoptic SLP variability) relates to meridional T gradient
stronger in winter than in summer
strongest east of the continents
storm track intensity also is stronger over ocean than land
the NH storm track has larger seasonal variability and is less zonally symmetric than the SH storm track

66. Relationship between surface cyclone and UL wave trof during the lifecycle of a frontal disturbance
500 mb height (thick lines)
SLP isobars (thin lines)
layer-mean temperature (dashed)
The deflection of the upper-level wave contributes to deepening of the surface low.
food for thought: how is the UL-LL coupling possible if U500 >> U1000? 66

67. meridional cross section (potential temperature q, zonal wind speed U)
U500 >> U1000
pressure (mb) E
latitude
Holton (2004) p.145

68. Question: how is the UL-LL coupling possible if U500 >> U1000?
first answer: SLP is not material, so surface lows & highs can move much faster than the zonal wind
more in-depth answer: UL (Rossby) waves move upstream, against the current. LL disturbances tend to propagate with the current. More on this when we broach PV thinking.

69. The movement of UL trofs and ridges
Rossby waves result from the conservation of vorticity. The restoring force is b or, more generally, the meridional gradient of the absolute vorticity. The resulting circulation causes the wave to propagate westward.
c is the Rossby wave propagation speed, u zonal wind, k and l are zonal and meridional wavenumbers
In short waves, the advection of relative vorticity dominates. The wave propagation speed is slow and they move with the prevailing westerly flow.
In long waves, the advection of planetary vorticity dominates. Their speed is large and they are generally stationary, or may retrograde.

70. Wave cyclone evolution fracture seclusion slp, fronts, precip
T-bone
slp, fronts, precip
frontal fracture
incipient
bent-back warm front
fracture
seclusion
850 mb temperature,
& LL jets
Shapiro 1990

71. Question:
Where do lows and highs tend to form?
Where do they decay?
a Lagrangian perspective …

72. NH baroclinic storm track & preferred regions of cyclogenesis / cyclolysis contour: standard deviation of GPH vector: phase propagation vector
1000 mb
500 mb

73. Sea level cyclone formation and decay around North America
Winter cyclolysis
Winter cyclogenesis
(Bluestein 1993, p 20)

74. anticyclone formation and decay around North America
Winter anticyclolysis
Winter anticyclogenesis
(Bluestein p. 25)

75. On the movement of trofs and ridges: two forecast rules
1. Kicking back cut-off lows into the main stream
Trofs may be cut-off from the westerly flow and they become stationary at lower latitudes. Cut-off lows may dissipate or they may be ‘kicked back’ into the main current
The kicker trof needs to approach the cut-off to within ~2000 km (Henry’s rule)

76. On the movement of trofs and ridges: two forecast rules
2. asymmetric trofs & meridional movement
If the max cyclonic shear is on the upstream side of the trof, the trof will tend to move equatorward, and may deepen.
If the max cyclonic shear is on the downstream side of the trof, the trof will tend to move poleward.

77. Hovmöller diagrams red: short-wave trofs
24 hr average
departure of the 24 hr average from the zonal mean
Winter 02-03
500 mb height (m)
30-40ºN
all longitudes
question: how does the stationary long-wave pattern shown here match with the 500 mb anomalies from zonal mean, discussed earlier ?
Alpine lee cyclogenesis
Rockies lee cyclogenesis
red: short-wave trofs
blue: stationary long-wave ridge
Source:

78. “blocking” flow aloft occurs most frequently in spring around 50°N
results from an anomalous long-wave ridge that blocks the progression of short waves
occurs during ‘low-index’ cycles
high index: strong zonal flow
low index: zonal flow weak, meridional flow strong
3 types, qualitatively separated
High-over-low block
Omega block
upper-level ridge

79. high over low block
upper-level ridge
omega block

80. Conclusions
A seasonally-variable net surface energy imbalance exists, with En>0 at low latitudes and En<0 at high latitudes.
The atmospheric component of the meridional heat transfer is achieved in part by the meridional mean circulation (Hadley), but mainly by the mid-latitude eddy circulation associated with the high variability observed on the 3-10 day timescale (baroclinic eddies).
The Palmen-Newton model of the general circulation of the atmosphere
Highly simplified (seasonal variations/ land-sea contrast are very important) - applies better in the SH
The only strong meridional cell in the zonal mean circulation is the Hadley cell
The seasonal variation of SLP in the NH is dominated by the land-sea contrast
The annual temperature range over land, esp the eastern end of the land masses, is far larger than that over the oceans. This is not explained by the annual range of net radiation, which shows weak zonal anomalies.
Subtropical (~30ºN) ocean highs and continental lows dominate in summer
Polar (~60ºN) ocean lows and continental highs dominate in winter
A jet stream exists in the upper mid-latitude troposphere
Its climatological position and strength are in thermal wind balance, thus it is stronger in winter than in summer
The separation between STJ and PJ is not present at all longitudes, nor in the zonal mean, in both hemispheres & seasons
Highly zonally asymmetric in the NH, due to continents and topography
Quasi-stationary trofs along east coasts of N America & Asia
Very symmetric in the SH
Jet stream separates reservoirs of very different air (in terms of potential vorticity)
The jet stream carries quasi-stationary long waves and eastward-moving, baroclinic short waves
baroclinic storm track most apparent in the 3-10 band-pass filtered data, at LL and UL
stronger in winter than summer,
storm track most ‘intense’ near east coasts, where the UL jet and LL baroclinicity are strongest
this is consistent with QG theory (stronger PVA and WAA), to be discussed later