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Chapter 15 Innate Immunity
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An Overview of the Body’s Defenses
Resistance to most plant and animal pathogens Resistance due to physiological processes of humans that are incompatible with those of the pathogen (species resistance) Correct chemical receptors not present on human cells Temperature and pH may be incompatible with those necessary for the pathogen’s survival Number of pathogens for which humans don’t have innate resistance can cause disease
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
Made up of structures, chemicals, and processes that work to prevent pathogens entering the body Includes the skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
The Role of Skin in Innate Immunity Skin composed of two major layers Epidermis Multiple layers of tightly packed cells Few pathogens can penetrate these layers Shedding of dead skin cells removes attached microorganisms Epidermal dendritic cells Phagocytize pathogens Dermis Contains protein fibers called collagen Give skin strength and pliability to resist abrasions that could introduce microorganisms
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
The Role of Skin in Innate Immunity Skin has chemicals that defend against pathogens Perspiration secreted by sweat glands Salt – inhibits growth of pathogens by drawing water from their cells Antimicrobial peptides – sweat glands secret dermicidins Lysozyme – destroys cell wall of bacteria Sebum secreted by sebaceous (oil) glands Helps keep skin pliable and less likely to break or tear Lowers the pH of the skin to a level inhibitory to many bacteria
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
The Role of Mucous Membranes and the Lacrimal Apparatus in Innate Immunity Mucous membranes line all body cavities open to the outside environment Two distinct layers Epithelium Thin, outer covering of the mucous membranes Unlike surface epidermal cells, epithelial cells are living Tightly packed to prevent entry of pathogens Continual shedding of cells carries attached microorganisms away Deeper connective layer that supports the epithelium
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
The Role of Mucous Membranes and the Lacrimal Apparatus in Innate Immunity Lacrimal apparatus Produces and drains tears Blinking spreads tears and washes surface of the eye Lysozyme in tears destroys bacteria
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
The Role of Normal Microbiota in Innate Immunity Normal microbiota help protect the body by competing with potential pathogens (microbial antagonism) Various activities of the normal microbiota make it hard for pathogens to compete Consumption of nutrients makes them unavailable to pathogens Create an environment unfavorable to other microorganisms by changing pH Help stimulate the body’s second line of defense Promote overall health by providing vitamins to host
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
Other First-Line Defenses Antimicrobial peptides Present in skin, mucous membranes, neutrophils Toll-like receptors (TLRs) Cells produce antimicrobial peptides when microbial chemicals bind to TLRs on host cell NOD proteins Intracellular receptors for microbial components such as bacterial cell walls Other processes and chemicals
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
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The Body’s First Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Operates when pathogens succeed in penetrating the skin or mucous membranes Composed of cells, antimicrobial chemicals, and processes but no physical barriers Many of these components are contained or originate in the blood
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Defense Components of Blood Plasma Plasma is mostly water containing electrolytes, dissolved gases, nutrients, and proteins When the clotting factors, a group of plasma proteins, are removed from plasma, the remaining fluid is called serum Includes iron-binding compounds Other plasma proteins include complement proteins and antibodies
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Defense Components of Blood Defensive blood cells: leukocytes The cells and cell fragments in plasma are called formed elements Three types of formed elements Erythrocytes – carry oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood Platelets – involved in blood clotting Leukocytes – involved in defending the body against invaders Divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Defense Components of Blood Defensive blood cells: leukocytes Granulocytes Neutrophils and eosinophils can phagocytize pathogens Neutrophils and eosinophils are capable of diapedesis
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Defense Components of Blood Defensive blood cells: leukocytes Agranulocytes Two types Lymphocytes – most involved in adaptive immunity Monocytes – leave the blood and mature into phagocytic cells called macrophages
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Defense Components of Blood Defensive blood cells: leukocytes Lab analysis of leukocytes The differential white blood cell count test can signal signs of disease Increased eosinophils can indicate allergies or parasitic worm infection Bacterial diseases often show increase in leukocytes and in neutrophils Viral infections show increase in lymphocytes
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Phagocytosis Cells capable of phagocytosis are called phagocytes Phagocytosis is not completely understood Can be divided into five stages Chemotaxis Adherence Ingestion Killing Elimination
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Nonphagocytic Killing Killing by eosinophils Mainly attack parasitic helminths (worms) by attaching to their surface Secrete toxins that weaken or kill the helminth Eosinophilia, or elevated eosinophil levels, is often indicative of a helminth infestation
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Nonphagocytic Killing Killing by natural killer lymphocytes Secrete toxins onto the surface of virally infected cells and tumors Differentiate normal body cells because they have membrane proteins similar to the NK cells
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Nonphagocytic Killing Killing by neutrophils Produce chemicals that kill nearby invaders Generate extracellular fibers called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that bind to and kill bacteria
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Nonspecific Chemical Defenses Against Pathogens Complement Set of serum proteins designated numerically according to the order of their discovery Complement activation results in lysis of the foreign cell Complement can be activated in three ways Classical pathway Alternate pathway Lectin pathway
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Nonspecific Chemical Defenses Against Pathogens Complement Inactivation of complement Body’s own cells withstand complement cascade Membrane-bound proteins on many cells bind with and break down activated complement proteins
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Nonspecific Chemical Defenses Against Pathogens Interferons Protein molecules released by host cells to nonspecifically inhibit the spread of viral infections Cause many symptoms typically associated with viral infections Two types Types I (alpha and beta) Type II (gamma)
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Inflammation Nonspecific response to tissue damage resulting from various causes Characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain Two types Acute Long-lasting (chronic)
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Inflammation Acute inflammation Develops quickly and is short lived Is typically beneficial Is important in the second line of defense Dilation and increased permeability of the blood vessels Migration of phagocytes Tissue repair
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
Fever A body temperature over 37C Results when chemicals called pyrogens trigger the hypothalamus to increase the body’s core temperature Various types of pyrogens Bacterial toxins Cytoplasmic contents of bacteria released by lysis Antibody-antigen complexes These signal for the production of interleukin-I (IL-1)
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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The Body’s Second Line of Defense
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