1. The Importance of Qualitative Research in Mixed Methods: Part II
John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Presentation to the University of the Western Cape, South Africa
April 17, 2014

2. Topics for this session
Five approaches to qualitative research
Data collection, field issues, ethics
A software program (MAXQDA)

3. Five Approaches to Qualitative Research

4. SAGE book, 2013, 3rd edition, “Qualitative inquiry: Choosing among five approaches”
Why I wrote the book
How I chose the five approaches
Defining characteristics of each of the five approaches

5. Why I wrote the book Saw Harry Wolcott’s tree diagram (1992)
Saw Reneta Tesch’s flowchart (1990)
Saw Jacob’s types in Review of Educational Research (1987)
Interested in providing rigorous methods for students
Saw that the procedures differed – wanted to make comparisons (hence final chapter)
Recognized that most professors taught out of their own background and training

6. Wolcott’s Tree

7. Choices of Approaches (types)
Narrative (literature)
Phenomenology (psychology)
Ethnography (anthropology)
Grounded theory (sociology)
Case studies (evaluation, political science, law)

8. Illustrative journal articles
Narrative – Chan’s study of a Chinese immigrant student in Canada
Phenomenology – Anderson & Spencer’s study of how persons living with AIDS image their disease
Grounded theory – Harley et al.’s study of physical activity for African-American women
Ethnography – Haenfler’s study of the straight edge punk subculture of the 1980’s
Case study – Asmussen and Creswells gunman incident on a college campus

9. Primary Texts Narrative Phenomenology Ethnography Grounded theory
(Clandinin & Connelly; Riessman)
Phenomenology
(Moustakas; van Manen)
Ethnography
(Wolcott; Fetterman)
Grounded theory
(Strauss & Corbin, Charmaz)
Case studies
(Stake, Yin)

10. What is the research intent of your qualitative study?
Describing/analyzing a bounded system
Individual, program, event, process
Case Study
Culture-sharing group
Ethnography
Generating a Theory
Process, action, or interaction
Grounded Theory
Reporting individual experiences
Collective experiences
Phenomenology
Individual experiences
Narrative Research
Autobiography
Biography
Life story

11. Features of Narrative Studies
Researchers collect stories from individuals
These stories tell individual experiences
Stories are gathered through different forms of data
The stories are often shaped into a chronology
The stories are analyzed often for themes
The narrative told often contains turning points
The narratives are placed within specific places or situations

12. Steps in Conducting a Narrative Study
Identify one or more persons
Draft a problem that documents the need to study this individual
Write broad research questions to explore events in this individual’s life
Collect data from individual and around (context) individual
Target significant events, epiphany, turning point
Include your relationship to this person (reflexivity)
Tell an interesting literary story

13. Features of Phenomenology
Focus is on a single phenomenon
Data are collected from individuals who have experienced this phenomenon (often interviews)
Philosophy may be advanced as a rationale for using phenomenology
Researchers may bracket themselves out
Data analysis leads to a description of the essence of the experience

14. Steps in Conducting Phenomenology
Identify and label a phenomenon that some people are experiencing (e.g., grief)
Pose a central question such as: What is (the experience) for X individuals?
Collect data from a small number of people who have experienced the phenomenon
Use phenomenological steps in analyzing the data
Generate the “essence” of the experience—what all of the people have in common
Generate the situations in which they have experienced the phenomenon.

15. Features of Grounded Theory
Researcher seeks to explain a process (or action, interaction)
This process is presented as a theory
Throughout the process the researcher memos
Typically researchers collect interview data
Data analysis helps to present the theory, often as a visual model that explains the process

16. Steps in Conducting a Grounded Theory Study
Identify a theory (explanation) that needs to be developed
Have this theory relate to a process or a specific action
Write a research question beginning, “What theory explains…this process…?”
Collect data (e.g., interviews) from a number of individuals that can help you develop the theory (who have experienced the process)
Systematically analyze the data for elements of the theory
Present the theory (diagram, hypotheses, discussion)
Discuss how it explains the “process” better than existing theories because it is “grounded” in the views of the participants

17. Features of Ethnography
Focus is on describing the culture of a culture-sharing group
This group has been together for some time and has shared patterns of behavior, ideas, beliefs, rituals
What is learned about the group is often focused on cultural concepts (e.g., communication patterns)
Data are collected through observations and interviews
The ethnography presented indicates an understanding as to how the group works

18. Steps in an Ethnography
Locate a group of people who share the same culture and who have experienced it together for some time
Determine a cultural theme to explore with this group
Pose a question such as, “How does this group work (in terms of language, rituals, behavior, etc)?
Collect observational and interview data and spend time in the field collecting data
Write a description of how the group works
Write themes about how the group works
Conclude by advancing how you have gained unique insight into the group through your ethnography

19. Characteristics of Case Studies
Researcher begins by defining a case
Within this case, the researcher explores an issue
The researchers collects many sources of data
The analysis focuses on a description of the case and some themes
Sometimes multiple cases are investigated, the discussion shaped into a chronology, or assessments across multiple cases
The report presents an in depth picture of the case(s) and the issues explored

20. Steps in a Case Study Identify an issue that needs to be studied
Identify cases that will help to understand the issue (case bounded by time/place)
Pose a central question about “How an in depth analysis of X cases will provide insight into an (issue)”
Gather extensive, multiple forms of data to build a detailed picture of the case
Describe the case
Present themes about the case
End with an assertion about how the cases have informed your issue
Use detailed vignettes throughout

21. Criteria for Selecting a Qualitative Approach
What are you attempting to learn?
The endpoint of the approaches differ
Personal preference
More formal vs more literary
Audiences in your field
Past experiences

22. Data Collection, Field Issues, Ethics

23. Types of Data Collection in African Studies
Interviews, observations, audio-visual material, participatory approaches
Appreciative Inquiry
Photovoice

24. Appreciative Inquiry Look for what works and appreciate it
Seeks the positive core of a living system
Findings are grounded in real experience and history
Interviews to gather stories
Participants then conduct more interviews

25. Photovoice data collection
Photo elicitation techniques—photo elicits critical thinking and discussion
Participatory approach
Participants take photos
Examine photos and then discuss contents with the researcher
Participatory needs assessment or evaluation
(Wang & Burris, 1994)

26. Field Issues Interviews Observations Documents Audio-visual material
Can be draining to conduct
Recording equipment and reliability of audio
Dealing with sensitive issues
The process of questioning and listening
Transcribing
Role of the researcher-participant or non
Taking field notes, recording quotes
Maintaining role at the site
Locating materials
Obtaining permission to use material
Working with archives
How to set up camera shots
Quality of audio
Placement of audio and video equipment

27. Ethical Issues in Data Collection
Type of Ethical Issue
How to Address the Issue
Respect the site and disrupt as little as possible
Avoid deceiving participants
Respect potential power imbalances and exploitation of participants (e.g., interviewing, observing)
Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving site without giving feedback.
Build trust, convey extent of anticipated disruption in gaining access
Discuss purpose of the study and how data will be used
Avoid leading questions; withhold sharing personal impressions; avoid disclosing sensitive information
Provide rewards for participating

28. A Software Program (MAXQDA)

29. Software Tools for Analysis
MAXQDA
NVivo
Atlas.ti
HyperRESEARCH

30. Software Tools for Data Collection
Photo
Video
Fieldnotes
Field surveys
Apps
KoBoForm, KoBoCollect
MAXApp
Atlas.ti Mobile

31. Why use qualitative software?
Storing and organizing data
Locating text
Assisting with coding and organizing codes efficiently
Writing and storing memos
Working in qualitative research teams, such as multiple coders
Retrieving data easily and comparing codes
Developing visual displays for interpretation and reporting

32. MAXApp

33. MAXApp Project

36. Storing Qualitative Data
Coding; Organizing Codes and Themes

37. Retrieval of Coded Text Limit to specific codes or documents

38. Reporting and Visual Tools
Matrix of Codes by Variable

39. Code Relations Browser
Co-occurrence of codes within interviews
Exploring relationships

40. Recommendations for Software
Determine whether you should use qualitative software
Select the program you are comfortable using that meets the features you need
Store and manage your data in a software program
Organize your analysis (codes and themes)
Create visual displays of your findings

41. Summary of Topics Five approaches to qualitative research
Data collection, field issues, ethics
A software program (MAXQDA)

42. The Importance of Qualitative Research in Mixed Methods: Part II
John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Presentation to the University of the Western Cape, South Africa
April 17, 2014