1. Directional Terms Chapter 1

2. Anatomical Position and Regional Terms

3. Anatomical Position
Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward
Palms face anteriorly with thumbs pointed away from the body
Right and left always refers to the sides belonging to the person or specimen being viewed – never to the viewer
Note: four legged animals have a different anatomical position than humans
Their ventral is on the inferior side and dorsal in on the superior side
In humans ventral and anterior is the same and so is dorsal and posterior

4. Directional Terms Refers to the body in anatomical position:
Superior (cranial, cephalic) / Inferior (caudal)
Anterior (ventral) / Posterior (dorsal)
Medial / Lateral
Superficial (external) / Deep (internal)
Proximal / Distal
Ipsilateral / Contralateral

5. Directional Terms

6. Body Planes and Sections
Planes divide the body:
Frontal (coronal)
Sagittal (para or mid)
Transverse
Obliques
Sections: cuts made along a plane
Figure 1.4

7. Planes and sections through different parts of the brain

8. Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities and their subdivisions
Cranial
cavity
(contains
brain)
Dorsal body
Vertebral
spinal cord)
Superior
mediastinum
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Pleural
Abdomino-
pelvic
Ventral body
(thoracic and
abdominopelvic
cavities)
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Diaphragm
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
Thoracic
heart and
lungs)
(a) Lateral view
(b) Anterior view
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Figure 1.6

9. Body Cavities and Membranes
Serous cavities: slit-like space lined by a serous membrane (serosa)
Pleura, Pericardium, Peritoneum
Parietal serosa: lines the outer wall of the cavity
Visceral serosa: covers the visceral organs
Serous Fluid: lubricant secreted by both serous membranes

10. Pericardial, Pleural, Peritoneal
Figure 1.7

11. Other Cavities
Oral, Nasal, Orbital, Middle ear, and Synovial (joint) cavities
Figure 1.11

12. Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
To facilitate its study, the abdominopelvic region can be divided into regions and quadrants
Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine regions
Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into four quadrants: right and left upper / lower quadrants

13. Abdominal Regions Figure 1.8a, b Epigastric region Umbilical Right
lumbar
Left
hypochondriac
Hypogastric
(pubic)
Right iliac
(inguinal)
Left iliac
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
Liver
Diaphragm
Spleen
Gallbladder
Stomach
Ascending colon of
large intestine
Transverse colon
of large intestine
Small intestine
Descending colon
of large intestine
Cecum
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Appendix
Urinary bladder
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
Figure 1.8a, b

14. Organs Located in Abdominal Regions
R. Hypochondriac - right, upper 1/3; gallbladder, liver, r. kidney
Epigastric - Upper, central 1/3; liver, stomach, pancreas, duodenum
L. Hypochondriac - left, upper 1/3; spleen, colon, liver, l. kidney, small intestine
R. Lumbar - right, lateral 1/3; cecum, ascending colon, liver, r. kidney, small intestine
Umbilical - center; umbilicus (navel) is located here; jejunum, ileum, duodenum, colon, kidneys, major abdominal vessels
L. Lumbar - left, lateral 1/3; descending colon, l. kidney, small intestine
R. Iliac (inguinal) - right, lower 1/3; appendix, cecum, small intestine
Hypogastric (pubic) - lower, center 1/3; urinary bladder, small intestine, sigmoid colon, female reproductive organs
L. Iliac (inguinal) - left, lower 1/3; small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon

15. Abdominal Quadrants Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Left upper quadrant
(LUQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
(c) The four abdominopelvic quadrants
Figure 1.8c

16. Disorder: abnormality of structure and/or function
Disease: illness characterized by a set of symptoms and signs
Symptoms: subjective changes in body functions not apparent to an observant
Signs: objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure
Diagnosis: science of distinguishing one disorder or disease from another
Human Body and Disease
Copyright 2012, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

17. Microscopy: used to investigate small structures of organs, tissues, and cells
Histology: study of tissue and their cells (cytology)
Light microscopy illuminates tissue with a beam of light (lower magnification)
Electron microscopy uses beams of electrons (higher magnification)
Specialized cells form different types of tissues, thus
different tissues do not look or function in the same way
Illness or physiological problems experienced in the body
occur at the cellular level
Microscopic Anatomy

18. Light and Electron Microscopic Anatomy
(a) Light micrograph
(330)
(b) Transmission electron micrograph,
artificially colored (870)
Cytoplasm
Extracellular
material
Cell nuclei
(c) Scanning electron micrograph,
artificially colored (2900)
Figure 1.9a–c

19. Preparing Human Tissue
Specimen is fixed (preserved) and sectioned
Specimen is stained to distinguish anatomical structures
Light microscopy: acidic (negative charged dye molecules) and basic (positive charged dye molecules) stains
Electron microscopy: heavy-metal salt stains (deflects electrons)
Artifacts: distortions of preserved tissues
Not exactly like living tissues and organs
Preparing Human Tissue

20. Clinical Anatomy: An Introduction to Medical Imaging Techniqes
Traditional more non-invasive method of diagnosis
X-rays (electromagnetic waves) directed at the body
Some x-rays are absorbed: amount of absorption depends on the density of matter encountered
Radiograph image: negative
Darker exposed areas represent soft organs (easily penetrated)
Light, unexposed areas correspond to denser structures such as bones
Contrast medium: solution with heavy elements (i.e. barium)
Used to view soft tissue organs
Advanced X-Ray techniques use computer-assisted imaging technologies

21. Radiography X ray: electromagnetic waves of very short length
Best for visualizing bones and abnormal dense structures
Heart
(a) Radiograph of the chest
(b) Mammogram (cancerous
tumor at arrow)
Clavicles
(collarbones)
Air in
lungs
(black)
Ribs
Diaphragm
Radiography
Figure 1.10

22. Advanced Medical Imaging: Computed (Axial) Tomography (CT or CAT)
Takes successive X rays around a person’s circumference
Translates recorded information into a detailed picture of the section
Inferior
vena cava
Right
Left
Liver
Colon
Stomach
Aorta
Spleen
kidney
Thoracic
vertebra
View

23. Contrast X-rays
Contrast media make hollow or fluid-filled structures visible
Media can be introduced by injection, orally, or rectally
Depends on the structure imaged
Barium contrast x-ray showing a cancer of the ascending colon (arrow)

24. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
A contrast medium given: images taken ‘before’ and ‘after’
Computer processes the x-ray images and subtracts the differences
Eliminates all traces of body structures that obscure the vessel
Identify blockages of arteries that supply the heart or brain
Figure 1.12

25. PET (Positron Emission Tomography): accesses functional flow of blood to the heart & brain
Produces images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body
Decaying isotopes emits gamma rays
Detected by sensors, translated into impulses and sent to a computer
Active areas receiving more blood light up
Figure 1.13

26. Sonography (Ultrasound Imaging)
Figure 1.14
Pulses of high frequency (ultrasonic) sound waves reflect (echo) off tissue
Computer analyzes the echoes to construct sectional images
Inexpensive/safer technique but not used for viewing air-filled structures or structures surrounded by bone

27. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
High-energy magnetic field causes protons (H+) in tissues and fluids to align in relation to the field
Pulse of radio waves emitted to misalign H+
As they realign with the magnet a radio wave is again emitted
Sensors ‘read’ these ion patterns, computerized signals produce detailed images of soft tissues
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

28. Endoscopy Endoscope: lighted instrument with lenses
Used for visual examination of the inside of body organs or cavities
Colonoscopy: interior of the colon
Arthroscopy: interior of a joint
Laparoscopy: interior of abdominopelvic organs
Interior view of the colon as shown by colonoscopy