1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Research is a Process of Inquiry Graziano and Raulin Research Methods: Chapter 2 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: (1) Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; (2) Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; (3) Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Assumptions of Science Assumptions are accepted without proof Assumptions are accepted without proof Assumptions of science Assumptions of science –A true, physical universe exists –The universe is essentially orderly –The principles that define the functioning of the universe can be discovered –All ideas are tentative, potentially changed by new information These assumptions underlie all scientific thinking These assumptions underlie all scientific thinking

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Observation and Inference Facts: Events that can be observed Facts: Events that can be observed –Most “facts” of psychology are behaviors Constructs: Inferred from observations Constructs: Inferred from observations –Constructed to explain the observations –Examples: memory; emotion; personality –Used “as if” they really existed –Reification of a construct: incorrectly believing it is a fact

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Inductive & Deductive Thinking Inductive thinking: Inductive thinking: –from the specific instance to the general theory Deductive thinking: Deductive thinking: –from the general theory to make predictions Science Science –Develops theories through inductive logic –Tests theories by generating predictions through deductive logic and empirically verifying those predictions

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Theories in Science Simplified framework for explaining complex phenomena Simplified framework for explaining complex phenomena A scientific theory must be both A scientific theory must be both –Testable –Falsifiable Theories organize data and help predict new data Theories organize data and help predict new data

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Evaluating Theories Validity: Validity: –Accuracy of the theory in predicting outcomes Parsimony: Parsimony: –Simple theories are preferred Usefulness: Usefulness: –The value of the theory for practical problem solving

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Types of Theories Inductive theories: built on strong data base and tend to stay close to the data Inductive theories: built on strong data base and tend to stay close to the data Deductive theories: logically derived rather than derived from the data Deductive theories: logically derived rather than derived from the data Functional theories: about equal emphasis on inductive and deductive processes Functional theories: about equal emphasis on inductive and deductive processes Models: an analogical representation of reality Models: an analogical representation of reality

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Models in Science Model: Model: –A simplified representation of something Used to conceptualize phenomena that are too complex to understand in their entirety Used to conceptualize phenomena that are too complex to understand in their entirety The closer a model is to reality, the more likely that it will be useful The closer a model is to reality, the more likely that it will be useful

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Modeling Research Psychological research methods Psychological research methods –Complex set of approaches –Used to answer questions about behavior A two-dimensional model of research A two-dimensional model of research –Phases of research: the successive, overlapping steps of a research project –Levels of constraint: the degree of specificity, control, and precision

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Phases of Research Idea-generating phase Idea-generating phase Problem-definition phase Problem-definition phase Procedures-design phase Procedures-design phase Observation phase Observation phase Data-analysis phase Data-analysis phase Interpretation phase Interpretation phase Communication phase Communication phase

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Idea-Generating Phase Ideas come from many places Ideas come from many places –The researcher’s own interests –The research and theories of others Nurture and develop ideas Nurture and develop ideas –Be curious –Read what others think and what they have done

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Problem-Definition Phase Ideas are formalized into testable research questions Ideas are formalized into testable research questions Need to be more critical in this phase Need to be more critical in this phase –How does your idea compare to existing theory and research? –Is your idea logical? –What does your idea predict?

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Procedures-Design Phase Translate your ideas into testable hypotheses Translate your ideas into testable hypotheses The variables must be defined and procedures selected The variables must be defined and procedures selected Each step should be planned Each step should be planned Ethical issues must be considered Ethical issues must be considered

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Observation Phase “Doing the research” “Doing the research” The central activity of research The central activity of research –Earlier phases were the planning –Later phases will evaluate and interpret the findings The data gathered here will answer the question(s) you raised earlier The data gathered here will answer the question(s) you raised earlier

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Data-Analysis Phase Evaluating the data, usually using statistical procedures Evaluating the data, usually using statistical procedures Statistical procedures are selected in the procedures-design phase Statistical procedures are selected in the procedures-design phase Many types of statistics are available Many types of statistics are available –Depends on the question asked –Depends on the nature of the data

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Interpretation Phase Making sense out of the results Making sense out of the results Involves several steps Involves several steps –Interpreting the statistical findings –How do the findings relate to the research question asked? –Are there alternative interpretations of the data?

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Communication Phase Publication allows others to Publication allows others to –Judge your work –Build on your work –Challenge your work Many ways to make research public Many ways to make research public –Conference presentations –Publishing in journals or books

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Stages of Research

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Levels of Constraint Naturalistic observation Naturalistic observation Case-study method Case-study method Correlational research Correlational research Differential research Differential research Experimental research Experimental research

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Naturalistic Observation Involves observing the natural flow of behavior in a natural setting Involves observing the natural flow of behavior in a natural setting –No effort to control the behavior –Often no strong hypotheses going into the study A flexible strategy A flexible strategy –Allows the researcher to shift attention to behaviors that seem interesting

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Case-Study Research Slightly higher constraint Slightly higher constraint Some intervention by the researcher to structure the setting and observations Some intervention by the researcher to structure the setting and observations –Asking questions –Setting up situations or tasks Typically studying a single individual Typically studying a single individual

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Correlational Research Measuring the direction and strength of a relationship between variables Measuring the direction and strength of a relationship between variables –Must be at least two variables –Variables must be measured consistently (that is, measurement is constrained) Correlations can be used to predict future events Correlations can be used to predict future events

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Differential Research Concerned with evaluating differences between existing groups Concerned with evaluating differences between existing groups –Groups defined by preexisting variables –Group composition is outside of researcher’s control Interpreting group differences takes skill, knowledge, and caution Interpreting group differences takes skill, knowledge, and caution

24. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Experimental Research Comparing two or more conditions Comparing two or more conditions –Participants are assigned randomly to the conditions –Therefore, group differences are due to the impact of the conditions The highest level of constraint The highest level of constraint The best way to test causal questions The best way to test causal questions

25. Scientific Ethics Pace of scientific discovery Pace of scientific discovery –Seemingly unstoppable –Directions unpredictable –Frightening consequences The novel Frankenstein The novel Frankenstein –Metaphor for science –Scientists must take responsibility Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

26. Ethics in Psychology The American Psychological Association (APA) was one of the first organizations to establish ethical guidelines The American Psychological Association (APA) was one of the first organizations to establish ethical guidelines Now all organizations have ethical codes Now all organizations have ethical codes –National Institutes of Health (NIH) –Society for Neuroscience Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

27. Summary Science rests on a few basic assumptions Science rests on a few basic assumptions Observations are the “facts” of science Observations are the “facts” of science Inference is designed to make sense of the observed facts Inference is designed to make sense of the observed facts Theory is critical to the scientific enterprise Theory is critical to the scientific enterprise The textbook’s model of psychological research The textbook’s model of psychological research –Phases of research –Levels of constraint