1. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 “the city has thus historically been the melting-pot of races, peoples, and cultures and a most favorable breeding ground of new biological and cultural hybrids. It has not only tolerated but rewarded individual differences. It has brought together people from the ends of the earth because they are different and thus useful to one another, rather than because they are homogeneous and like-minded” (Wirth 1938)

2. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Creativity: when existing knowledge is recombined in novel and valuable ways Two broad possibilities as to why some places have a greater propensity for generating creativity 1.certain people make places more creative 2.certain places make people more creative Possibility 1 some people are better at making new combinations of knowledge than others such people tend to be concentrated in particular places thereby making such places more creative creativity as a primarily cognitive process Possibility 2 certain places enable people to make more and better new combinations of knowledge such places make people more creative creativity as a primarily social process (Sources: Jacobs 1969; Boden 1994; Weitzman 1998; Sternberg and Lubart 1999; Florida 2002)

3. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 1 Creativity occurs when existing knowledge is combined in new and valuable ways. knowledge is the raw material of creativity access to novel knowledge is a prerequisite of creativity Sources: (Jacobs 1969; Boden 1994; Weitzman 1998; Sternberg and Lubart 1999)

4. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 2 There is an inverse relationship between the novelty of acquired knowledge and the ability to comprehend it. Cognitive distance: “indicates that people do not just have different thoughts, but that they have different abilities of perception, interpretation and evaluation, and thereby see the world differently, as a function of their experience” Nooteboom (2000) ‘absorptive capacity’ (Cohen and Levinthal 1990)

5. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 3 The optimal value of acquired knowledge is a balance between novelty and comprehension. Sources: (Nooteboom 2001)

6. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 4 Creativity, which depends on the ability to absorb, then recombine knowledge, is most likely when there is a moderate cognitive distance between two sets of knowledge. “cognitive distance yields both an opportunity and a problem. The opportunity is that contact with others gives us an opportunity to escape from the myopia of our personal cognitive construction. A problem, however, is that the greater the distance, i.e. the less people share cognitive categories, the more difficult it is to cross it, i.e. to understand the actions and expressions of a partner. Thus there is some optimal cognitive distance: large enough for partners to tell each other something new, and small enough for comprehension” Nooteboom 2001

7. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 5 ‘Stronger ties’ are more likely to be sources of redundant knowledge while ‘weaker ties’ are more likely to be sources of novel knowledge. people who have frequent contact with one another are more likely to know many of the same things people who do not have frequent contact with one another are more likely to know many different things tie ‘strength’ measured by: frequency and duration of interaction; emotional intensity; intimacy; and, reciprocity Sources: (Granovetter 1973; Marsden and Campbell 1984; Amin and Cohendet 2004)

8. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 6 An increase in the number of non-redundant weak ties will increase access to learning opportunities. more contact with people outside ‘core’ network (weak ties) increases access to differentiated knowledge Sources: (Granovetter 1973; Burt 1992)

9. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 7 The probability of a network connection forming is inversely related to cognitive distance. “homophily is the principle that a contact between similar people occurs at a higher rate than among dissimilar people. The pervasive fact of homophily means that cultural behavioral, genetic, or material information that flows through networks will tend to be localized” (McPherson et al. 2001) ‘bridging’ cognitive distance requires instrumental action i.e. ‘global pipelines’ (Bathelt, Malmberg, and Maskell 2004)

10. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 8 The probability of a network connection forming is higher if the dyads exist in the same region. knowledge flows are constrained by networks networks are constrained by distance importance of face-to-face = qualitative AND quantitative therefore most knowledge flows will remain local Sources: (Wellman 1996; Grotz and Braun 1997; Gertler 2003; Sorper and Venables 2004; Britton 2004)

11. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 9 The probability of a network connection forming (and knowledge flow occurring) is a function of cognitive distance and physical distance. ‘principle of least effort’ (Zipf 1949) the most likely network connections are the ones that have the least resistance to overcome

12. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 10 The most important network connections in the process of creativity will be intra-regional weak ties.

13. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 11 The presence of a greater number of networks leads to a greater degree of cognitive diversity. from ‘cognitive distance’ to ‘cognitive diversity’ Sources: (Milliken, Bartel and Kurtzberg 2003)

14. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 12 The number of possible new combinations of knowledge (the creative potential) is exponentially related to the level of cognitive diversity. Sources: (Weitzman 1998) ‘cognitive diversity’ will be greater where network diversity is greater

15. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 13 Cognitive diversity decreases with time as networks intersect and knowledge is shared. importance of ‘churn’ in-migration and out-migration (is retention desirable?) Sources: (Coleman 1988; Pearlin 1989)

16. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 14 As tie strength increases between two people the degree of shared values also increases. ‘social capital’ networks are not just about knowledge flows networks are a crucial source of support Sources: (Coleman 1988; Pearlin 1989)

17. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 15 Sanctions are more strictly and severely imposed when network ties are stronger. Sources: (Coleman 1988; Pearlin 1989) creativity = dissent dissent = risk

18. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Supposition 16 The risks associated with acts of creativity are higher when cognitive diversity is lower. ‘openness’ versus ‘groupthink’ ‘lock-in’ Sources: (Nemeth and Nemeth-Brown 2003)

19. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Key Questions: is creativity equally important to all sectors? are there differences in relation to knowledge type? (Coenen, Moodysson and Asheim 2004; Asheim and Gertler 2005; Gertler and Wolfe forthcoming; Asheim Thursday) are there differences in network structures? does diversity matter more to some sectors?

20. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 SyntheticAnalytic Cultural - social interaction - mutually agreed norms & conventions SourceScientific - scientific principles - observable & verifiable evidence Personal - subjective - internal - adaptive ClassificationUniversal - objective - external - stable Evolutionary - disruption - diversity - importance of weak ties LearningExpansionary - continuity - homogeneity - importance of strong-ties Creativity - recombination of existing knowledge NoveltyDiscovery - initial understanding of ‘natural’ phenomena Sources: Coenen, Moodysson and Asheim 2004; Asheim and Gertler 2005; Gertler and Wolfe forthcoming; Asheim Thursday

21. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005

22. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005

23. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Sources: (Zucker and Darby 1996; Feldman 2003)

24. Connecting Cognitive Diversity in Space: Towards a Geographic Theory of Creativity Creativity Learning Networks Proximity Place Motivation Implications Introduction Greg Spencer Innovation Systems Research Network Conference May 7, 2005 Average establishment size (private sector) % Self-employed (private sector)