1. CM20145 Indexing and Hashing
Dr Alwyn Barry
Dr Joanna Bryson
CM20145 Indexing and Hashing

2. Coursework Is Due on the 16th (Thursday)!!
Big Important Notice
Coursework Is Due on the 16th (Thursday)!!

3. Possible CW Plan (Lecture 10)
This week:
G: write ER diagram, divy tables (~ 3hrs),
I: write tables & populate a few rows.
`Reading’ week
G: normalize/validate DB, divy reports (~ 3hrs),
I: write reports / web pages.
Week of 22nd
I: finish reports, link to others’,
G: refactor DB, reports if necessary (~ 2hrs).
Week of 29th
G: plan & divy hand-in report (~ 1hr),
I: write hand-in.
Week of Dec. 6th
G: Assemble hand-in, write communal credit page, hand in (~0.5-4hr).
Week of Dec. 13th
Laugh at unfinished groups.

4. More on the Coursework
Getting the group all together is the hard part; my plan kept this down to 10 hours.
Individuals expected to spend at least as much time individually.
Point is for everyone to have built tables & reports in a large system.
Point is not shrinkwrapping.
If an individual hasn’t turned up / done their part, don’t feel obligated to cover the hole well, just document it.
Everyone has to sign final report!!

5. Last Time Storage Access & Buffers File Organization
Fixed Length Records
Variable Length
Organization of Records in Files
Sequential & Clustering
Data-Dictionary Storage
Intro to Indexing
Basic Concepts
Ordered Indices
Dense & Sparse
Multilevel
Primary & Secondary
Now: Indexing & Hashing

6. Overview Basic Concepts Ordered Indices B+-Tree Index Files
Static Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing

7. Indexing: Basic Concepts
An index file consists of records (called index entries) of the form
Index much smaller than original file.
Two basic kinds of indices:
Ordered indices: keys stored sorted.
Dense vs. Sparse
Multilevel
Primary vs. Secondary
Hash indices: search keys distributed uniformly across buckets using hash function.
search-key
pointer
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Modifications & additions by S Bird, J Bryson

8. Index Evaluation Metrics
Types:
Access types supported efficiently. E.g.,
Records with a specified value in the attribute.
Records with an attribute value falling in a specified range.
Time:
Access time
Insertion time
Deletion time
Space:
Space overhead

9. Pros & Cons of Ordered Indices
Indices offer substantial benefits when searching for records.
When a file is modified, every index on the file must be updated. Updating indices imposes overhead on database modification.
Sequential scan using primary index is efficient, but a sequential scan using a secondary index is expensive:
Each record access may fetch a new block from disk.
Secondary indices have to be dense.

10. Overview Basic Concepts Ordered Indices B+-Tree Index Files
Static Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing

11. B+-Tree Index Files
Automatically reorganizes itself with small, local, changes, in the face of insertions and deletions.
Reorganization of entire file is not required to maintain performance.
Extra insertion and deletion overhead, space overhead, but the advantages of B+-trees outweigh disadvantages
Used extensively.

12. B+-Tree Index Files (2) A B+-tree is a balanced, rooted tree.
All paths from root to leaf are of the same length.
Each node that is not a root or a leaf has between [n/2] and n children.
n is fixed for a particular tree.
A leaf node has between [(n–1)/2] and n–1 values.
If the root is:
not a leaf, it can have as few as 2 children (or 1 if tree has only 1 node).
a leaf it can have 0 to (n–1) values.

13. Example of a B+-tree (n = 3)
B+-tree for account file (n = 3)

14. B+-Tree Node Structure
Typical node:
Ki are the search-key values.
Pi are:
pointers to children (non-leaf nodes), or
pointers to records or buckets of records (leaf nodes).
The search-keys in a node are ordered:
K1 < K2 < K3 < < Kn–1

15. Example of a B+-tree (n = 3)
B+-tree for account file (n = 3)

16. Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees
For i = 1, 2, . . ., n–1, pointer Pi either points to a file record with search-key value Ki, or to a bucket of pointers to file records, each record having search-key value Ki.
If Li, Lj are leaf nodes and i < j, Li’s search-key values are less than Lj’s search-key values.
Pn points to next leaf node in search-key order.

17. Non-Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees
Non leaf nodes form a multi-level sparse index on the leaf nodes.
For a non-leaf node with m pointers:
All the search-keys in the subtree to which P1 points are less than K1
For 2  i  m-1, all the search-keys in the subtree to which Pi points have values greater than or equal to Ki–1 & less than Ki.
All the search-keys in the subtree to which Pm points are greater than or equal to Km–1

18. Example of B+-Tree (n = 5)
B+-tree for account file (n = 5)
Leaf nodes must have between 2 and 4 values ((n–1)/2 and n –1, with n = 5).
Non-leaf nodes other than the root must have between 3 and 5 children (n/2 and n with n =5).
Root must have at least 2 children.

19. Example of a B+-Tree B+-tree for account file (n = 3)
Note sparse, multi-level index!

20. Observations About B+-Trees
Since the inter-node connections are done by pointers, “logically” close blocks need not be “physically” close.
The non-leaf levels of the B+-tree form a hierarchy of sparse indices.
The B+-tree contains a relatively small number of levels (logarithmic in the size of the main file), thus searches can be conducted efficiently.
Insertions and deletions to the main file can be handled efficiently, as the index can be restructured in logarithmic time.

21. Queries on B+-Trees Find all records with search-key value k.
Start with the root node:
Examine the node for the smallest search-key value > k.
If such a value exists, assume it is Kj. Then follow Pi to the child node
Otherwise k  Km–1, where there are m pointers in the node. Then follow Pm to the child node.
If the node reached by following the pointer above is not a leaf node, repeat the above procedure on the node, and follow the corresponding pointer.
Eventually reach a leaf node. If for some i, key Ki = k follow pointer Pi to the desired record or bucket. Else no record with search-key value k exists.

22. Queries on B+-Trees - Efficiency
In processing a query, a path is traversed in the tree from the root to some leaf node.
If there are K search-key values in the file, the path is no longer than logn/2(K).
A node is generally the same size as a disk block, typically 4 kilobytes, and n is typically around 100 (40 bytes per index entry).
With 1 million search key values and n = 100, at most log50(1,000,000) = 4 nodes are accessed in a lookup.
Contrast this with a balanced binary tree with 1 million search key values — around 20 nodes are accessed in a lookup —
this difference is significant since every node access may need a disk I/O, costing around 20 milliseconds!

23. Insertion on B+-Trees
Find the leaf node in which the search-key value would appear.
If the search-key value is already there in the leaf node, record is added to file and if necessary a pointer is inserted into the bucket.
If the search-key value is not there, then add the record to the main file and create a bucket if necessary. Then:
If there is room in the leaf node, insert <key-value, pointer> pair in the leaf node.
Else, split the node, along with the new <key-value, pointer> entry; next slide.

24. Insertion on B+-Trees (2)
Splitting a node:
Take the n pairs (including the new one) <search-key value, pointer> in sorted order.
Leave the first  n/2  in original node, place the rest in a new node.
Let the new node be p, and let k be the least key value in p.
Insert <k,p> in the parent of the node being split.
If the parent is full, split it and propagate the split further up.
The splitting of nodes proceeds upwards until a node that is not full is found.
Worst case: the root node may be split, increasing the height of the tree by 1.

25. Example: Insertion on B+-Trees
Insert “Clearview”

26. Deletion on B+-Trees Else…
Find the record to be deleted, and remove it from the main file and from the bucket (if present).
Remove <search-key value, pointer> from the leaf node if there is no bucket or if the bucket has become empty.
If the node now has too few entries, and the entries in the node and a sibling fit into a single node, then:
Insert all the search-key values in the two nodes into a single node (the one on the left), and delete the other node.
Delete the pair <Ki–1, Pi>, where Pi is the pointer to the deleted node, from its parent, recursively as above.
Else…

27. Deletion on B+-Trees (2)
Else, if the node now has too few entries, but the its entries can’t fit with a sibling’s into a single node, then
Redistribute the pointers between the node and a sibling such that both have more than the minimum number of entries.
Update the corresponding <search-key value, pointer> pair in the node’s parent.
Node deletions may cascade upwards till a node which has n/2  or more pointers is found.
If the root node has only one pointer after deletion, it is deleted and the sole child becomes the root.

28. Example: B+-Tree Deletion
delete “Downtown”
The removal of the leaf node containing “Downtown” did not result in its parent having too few pointers.
So the cascaded deletions stopped with the deleted leaf node’s parent.

29. Example 2: B+-Tree Deletion
Delete “Perryridge”
Node with “Perryridge” becomes underfull (empty in this case) and merged with its sibling.
As a result “Perryridge” node’s parent became underfull, and was merged with its sibling (and an entry was deleted from their parent).
Root node then had only one child, and was deleted and its child became the new root node.

30. Example 3: B+-tree Deletion
Delete “Perryridge”
Parent of leaf containing Perryridge became underfull, and borrowed a pointer from its left sibling.
Search-key value in the parent’s parent changes as a result.

31. Overview Basic Concepts Ordered Indices B+-Tree Index Files
Static Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing

32. FYI
Not exam.
B-Tree Index Files
Similar to B+-tree, but B-tree allows search-key values to appear only once; eliminates redundant storage of search keys.
Search keys in nonleaf nodes appear nowhere else in the B-tree; an additional pointer field for each search key in a nonleaf node must be included.
Generalized B-tree leaf node
Nonleaf node – pointers Bi are the bucket or file record pointers.

33. B-Tree Index File Example
B-tree (above) and B+-tree (below) on same data.

34. B-Tree vs. B+-Tree Indices
Advantages of B-Tree indices:
May use less tree nodes than a corresponding B+-Tree.
Sometimes possible to find search-key value before reaching leaf node.
Disadvantages of B-Tree indices:
Only small fraction of all search-key values are found early.
Non-leaf nodes are larger, so fan-out is reduced:
Thus B-Trees typically have greater depth than corresponding B+-Tree.
Insertion, deletion more complicated than in B+-Trees.
Implementation is harder than B+-Trees.
Typically, advantages of B-Trees do not outweigh disadvantages.

35. Overview Basic Concepts Ordered Indices B+-Tree Index Files
Static Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing

36. Static Hashing
A bucket is a unit of storage containing one or more records (typically a disk block).
Hash file organization: obtain the record’s bucket directly from its search-key value using a hash function.
Hash function h is a function from the set of all search-key values K to the set of all bucket addresses B.
Hash function is used to locate records for access, insertion as well as deletion.
Records with different search-key values may be mapped to the same bucket;
so entire bucket has to be searched sequentially to locate a record.

37. Ex: Hash File Organization
Hash file organization of account file, using branch-name as key
10 buckets.
Binary representation of each character treated as an integer.
Hash function returns the sum of the binary representations of the characters modulo 10
E.g. h(Perryridge) = 5 h(Round Hill) = 3 h(Brighton) = 3

38. Hash Functions
Worst hash function maps all search-key values to the same bucket; this makes access time proportional to the number of search-key values in the file.
Ideal hash function is uniform – each bucket is assigned the same number of search-key values from the set of all possible values.
Ideal hash function is random, so each bucket will have the same number of records assigned to it irrespective of the actual distribution of search-key values in the file.
Typical hash functions perform computation on the internal binary representation of the search-key.

39. Bucket Overflow Bucket overflow can occur because of:
FYI
Not exam.
Bucket Overflow
Bucket overflow can occur because of:
Insufficient buckets
Skewed distribution of records:
multiple records have same search-key value, or
chosen hash function produces non-uniform distribution of key values.
The probability of bucket overflow can be reduced, but not eliminated.
Handled by using overflow buckets.

40. FYI
Not exam.
Bucket Overflow
Overflow chaining – the overflow buckets of a given bucket are chained together in a linked list.

41. Deficiencies of Static Hashing
In static hashing, function h maps search-key values to a fixed set of B of bucket addresses.
Databases grow with time. If initial number of buckets is too small, performance will degrade due to too many overflows.
If file size at some point in the future is anticipated and number of buckets allocated accordingly, significant amount of space will be wasted initially.
If database shrinks, again space will be wasted.
One option is periodic re-organization of the file with a new hash function, but it is very expensive. Run at night, holidays, on mirror…
These problems can be avoided by using techniques that allow the number of buckets to be modified dynamically.

42. Dynamic Hashing FYI Not exam.
Allows dynamic modification of hash function.
Good for database that often changes size.
Extendable hashing – one form of dynamic hashing
Hash function generates values over a large range — typically b-bit integers, with b = 32.
At any time use only a prefix of the hash function to index into a table of bucket addresses.
Let the length of the prefix be i bits, 0  i  32.
Bucket address table size = 2i. Initially i = 0
Value of i grows and shrinks as the size of the database grows and shrinks.
Multiple entries in the bucket address table may point to a bucket.
Thus, actual number of buckets is < 2i
The number of buckets also changes dynamically due to coalescing and splitting of buckets.
See SKS 12.6 for full details about queries and updates.

43. Extendable Hashing: Pro and Con
Benefits of extendable hashing:
Hash performance does not degrade with growth of file.
Minimal space overhead.
Disadvantages of extendable hashing
Extra level of indirection to find desired record.
Bucket address table may itself become very big (larger than memory)
Need a tree structure to locate desired record in the structure!
Changing size of bucket address table is an expensive operation.

44. Summary Basic Concepts Ordered Indices B+-Tree Index Files
Static Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing
Next: Queries & Optimization

45. Ordered Indexing vs. Hashing
Cost of periodic re-organization.
Relative frequency of insertions and deletions vs. simple queries.
Is it desirable to optimize average access time at the expense of worst-case access time?
Expected type of queries:
Hashing is generally better at retrieving records having a specified value of the key.
If range queries are common, ordered indices are to be preferred.

46. Summary Basic Concepts Ordered Indices B+-Tree Index Files
Static Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing
Next: Queries & Optimization

47. Reading & Exercises Reading Exercises: Silberschatz Chapters 12
Connolly & Begg C.4, C.5.5, C.7
Exercises:
Silberschatz , 16
Think about the algorithms behind building & maintaining B+ trees, hashes.

48. End of Talk The following slides are ones I might use next year.
They were not presented in class
and you are not responsible for them.
JJB Dec 2003

49. B+-Tree File Organization
Index file degradation problem is solved by using B+-Tree indices.
Data file degradation problem is solved by using B+-Tree File Organization.
The leaf nodes in a B+-tree file organization store records, instead of pointers.
Since records are larger than pointers, the maximum number of records that can be stored in a leaf node is less than the number of pointers in a nonleaf node.
Leaf nodes are still required to be at least half full.
Insertion and deletion are handled in the same way as insertion and deletion of entries in a B+-tree index.

50. Hash Indices
Hashing can be used for both file organization and index-structure creation.
A hash index organizes the search keys, with their associated record pointers, into a hash file structure.
If the file itself is organized using hashing, a separate primary hash index on it using the same search-key is unnecessary.
We use the term hash index to refer to both secondary index structures and hash organized files.

51. Extendable Hash Structure

52. Ex: Extendable Hash Structure
Initial Hash structure, bucket size = 2

53. Example (cont)
Hash structure after insertion of one Brighton and two Downtown records.
NB, the first Downtown record is inserted into the same bucket as Brighton. Once the second Downtown record is inserted the bucket overflows, and we extend the bucket address table to include a prefix of length 1 (not 0 as before)

54. Hash structure after insertion of Mianus record
Example (cont)
Hash structure after insertion of Mianus record

55. Hash structure after insertion of three Perryridge records
Example (cont)
Hash structure after insertion of three Perryridge records
NB, the bucket overflow with Perryridge cannot be solved by enlarging the hash prefix used in the bucket address table, so instead we are forced to use an overflow bucket

56. Example (cont)
Hash structure after insertion of Redwood and Round Hill records
NB, The first and third buckets now hold records which have different values for the search keys