1. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley Chapter 17 Disk Storage, Basic File Structures, and Hashing

2. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Disk Storage Devices Preferred secondary storage device for high storage capacity and low cost. Data stored as magnetized areas on magnetic disk surfaces. A disk pack contains several magnetic disks connected to a rotating spindle. Disks are divided into concentric circular tracks on each disk surface. Track capacities vary typically from 4 to 150 Kbytes or more

3. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Disk Storage Devices (cont.)

4. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Disk Storage Devices (cont.) A track is divided into smaller blocks or sectors because it usually contains a large amount of information The division of a track into sectors is hard-coded on the disk surface and cannot be changed. One type of sector organization calls a portion of a track that subtends a fixed angle at the center as a sector. A track is divided into blocks by OS during formatting. The block size B is fixed for each system. Typical block sizes range from B=512 bytes to B=4096 bytes. Whole blocks are transferred between disk and main memory for processing.

5. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Disk Storage Devices (cont.)

6. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Typical Disk Parameters

7. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Disk Storage Devices (cont.) A disk is a random access addressable device A read-write head moves to the track that contains the block to be transferred. Disk rotation moves the block under the read-write head for reading or writing. A physical disk block (hardware) address consists of: a cylinder number (imaginary collection of tracks of same radius from all recorded surfaces) the track number or surface number (within the cylinder) and block number (within track). Reading or writing a disk block is time consuming because of the seek time s and rotational delay (latency) rd.

8. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Buffering of Blocks Double buffering can be used to speed up the transfer of contiguous disk blocks

9. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Records Data is usually stored in the form of records. Fixed and variable length records Records contain fields which have values of a particular type E.g., amount, date, time, age Fields themselves may be fixed length or variable length Variable length fields can be mixed into one record: Separator characters or length fields are needed so that the record can be “parsed.” A file of records with optional fields can be formatted in different ways. include in each record a sequence of pairs rather than just the field values. A repeating field needs one separator character to separate the repeating values of the field and another separator character to indicate termination of the field. A file that includes records of different types, each record is preceded by a record type indicator.

10. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Records

11. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Blocking Blocking: Refers to storing a number of records in one block on the disk. Blocking factor (bfr) refers to the number of records per block. bfr = B/R There may be empty space in a block if an integral number of records do not fit in one block. To utilize this unused space, we can store part of a record on one block and the rest on another. A pointer at the end of the first block points to the block containing the remainder of the record in case it is not the next consecutive block on disk. File records can be unspanned or spanned Unspanned: no record can span two blocks Spanned: a record can be stored in more than one block

12. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Files of Records A file is a sequence of records, where each record is a collection of data values (or data items). Allocating File Blocks on Disk contiguous allocation: makes reading fast, but it makes expanding the file difficult. linked allocation: easy to expand the file but makes it slow to read the whole file. file segments: a combination of the two allocates clusters of consecutive disk blocks, and the clusters are linked. indexed allocation A file descriptor (or file header) includes information that describes the file, such as the field names and their data types, and the addresses of the file blocks on disk. To search for a record on disk, one or more blocks are copied into main memory buffers. The goal of a good file organization is to locate the block that contains a desired record with a minimal number of block transfers.

13. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Operation on Files Typical file operations include: OPEN: Readies the file for access, and associates a pointer that will refer to a current file record at each point in time. RESET. Sets the file pointer of an open file to the beginning ofthe file. FIND: Searches for the first file record that satisfies a certain condition, and makes it the current file record. FINDNEXT: Searches for the next file record (from the current record) that satisfies a certain condition, and makes it the current file record. READ: Reads the current file record into a program variable. INSERT: Inserts a new record into the file & makes it the current file record. DELETE: Removes the current file record from the file, usually by marking the record to indicate that it is no longer valid. MODIFY: Changes the values of some fields of the current file record. CLOSE: Terminates access to the file. REORGANIZE: Reorganizes the file records. For example, the records marked deleted are physically removed from the file or a new organization of the file records is created. READ_ORDERED: Read the file blocks in order of a specific field of the file.

14. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Operation on Files The preceding operations (except for Open and Close) are called record- at-a-time operations because each operation applies to a single record. SCAN. If the file has just been opened or reset, Scan returns the first record; otherwise it returns the next record. If a condition is specified with the operation, the returned record is the first or next record satisfying the condition. In database systems, additional set-at-a-time higher-level operations may be applied to a file. FindAll. Locates all the records in the file that satisfy a search condition. Find (or Locate) n. Searches for the first record that satisfies a search condi tion and then continues to locate the next n – 1 records satisfying the same condition. Transfers the blocks containing the n records to the main memory buffer (if not already there). FindOrdered. Retrieves all the records in the file in some specified order. Reorganize. Starts the reorganization process. As we shall see, some file organizations require periodic reorganization.

15. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Unordered Files Also called a heap or a pile file. New records are inserted at the end of the file. A linear search through the file records is necessary to search for a record. This requires reading and searching half the file blocks on the average, and is hence quite expensive. additional access paths, such as the secondary indexes often is used. Record insertion is quite efficient. Reading the records in order of a particular field requires sorting the file records. To delete a record, first find its block, copy the block into a buffer, delete the record from the buffer, and finally rewrite the block back to the disk. have an extra byte or bit, called a deletion marker, stored with each record. remove deleted records during reorganization,

16. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Ordered Files Also called a sequential file. File records are kept sorted by the values of an ordering field. Ordered records have some advantages over unordered files. First, reading the records in order of the ordering key values becomes extremely efficient Second, finding the next record from the current one in order of the ordering key usually requires no additional block accesses Third, using a search condition based on the value of an ordering key field results in faster access Insertion is expensive: records must be inserted in the correct order. It is common to keep a separate unordered overflow (or transaction) file for new records to improve insertion efficiency; this is periodically merged with the main ordered file. A binary search can be used to search for a record on its ordering field value. This requires reading and searching log 2 of the file blocks on the average, an improvement over linear search.

17. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Ordered Files (cont.)

18. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Average Access Times The following table shows the average access time to access a specific record for a given type of file

19. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Hashed Files Hashing for disk files is called External Hashing The file blocks are divided into M equal-sized buckets, numbered bucket 0, bucket 1,..., bucket M-1. Typically, a bucket corresponds to one (or a fixed number of) disk block. One of the file fields is designated to be the hash key of the file. The record with hash key value K is stored in bucket i, where i=h(K), and h is the hashing function. Search is very efficient on the hash key. Collisions occur when a new record hashes to a bucket that is already full. An overflow file is kept for storing such records. Overflow records that hash to each bucket can be linked together.

20. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Hashed Files (cont.)

21. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Hashed Files (cont.) There are numerous methods for collision resolution, including the following: Open addressing: Proceeding from the occupied position specified by the hash address, the program checks the subsequent positions in order until an unused (empty) position is found. Chaining: For this method, various overflow locations are kept, usually by extending the array with a number of overflow positions. In addition, a pointer field is added to each record location. A collision is resolved by placing the new record in an unused overflow location and setting the pointer of the occupied hash address location to the address of that overflow location. Multiple hashing: The program applies a second hash function if the first results in a collision. If another collision results, the program uses open addressing or applies a third hash function and then uses open addressing if necessary.

22. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Hashed Files - Overflow Handling

23. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Hashed Files (cont.) To reduce overflow records, a hash file is typically kept 70-80% full. The hash function h should distribute the records uniformly among the buckets Otherwise, search time will be increased because many overflow records will exist. Main disadvantages of static external hashing: Fixed number of buckets M is a problem if the number of records in the file grows or shrinks. Ordered access on the hash key is quite inefficient (requires sorting the records).

24. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Dynamic And Extendible Hashed Files Dynamic and Extendible Hashing Techniques Hashing techniques are adapted to allow the dynamic growth and shrinking of the number of file records. These techniques include the following: dynamic hashing, extendible hashing, and linear hashing. Both dynamic and extendible hashing use the binary representation of the hash value h(K) in order to access a directory. In dynamic hashing the directory is a binary tree. In extendible hashing the directory is an array of size 2 d where d is called the global depth. Records are distributed among buckets based on the values of the leading bits in their hash values

25. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Dynamic And Extendible Hashing (cont.) The directories can be stored on disk, and they expand or shrink dynamically. Directory entries point to the disk blocks that contain the stored records. An insertion in a disk block that is full causes the block to split into two blocks and the records are redistributed among the two blocks. The directory is updated appropriately. Dynamic and extendible hashing do not require an overflow area. Linear hashing does require an overflow area but does not use a directory.

26. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Extendible Hashing In extendible hashing, a type of directory—an array of 2 d bucket addresses—is maintained, where d is called the global depth of the directory. The integer value corresponding to the first (high-order) d bits of a hash value is used as an index to the array to determine a directory entry, Several directory locations with the same first d’ bits for their hash values may contain the same bucket address if all the records that hash to these locations fit in a single bucket. A local depth d’ stored with each bucket—specifies the number of bits on which the bucket contents are based. The value of d can be increased or decreased by one at a time, thus doubling or halving the number of entries in the directory array. Doubling is needed if a bucket, whose local depth d’ is equal to the global depth d, overflows. Halving occurs if d >d’ for all the buckets after some deletions occur.

27. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Extendible Hashing

28. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Extendible Hashing Advantage: The performance of the file does not degrade as the file grows no space is allocated in extendible hashing for future growth, but additional buckets can be allocated dynamically as needed. The space overhead for the directory table is negligible. splitting causes minor reorganization in most cases, since only the records in one bucket are redistributed to the two new buckets. The only time reorganization is more expensive is when the directory has to be doubled (or halved). Disadvantage: the directory must be searched before accessing the buckets themselves, resulting in two block accesses instead of one in static hashing.

29. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Dynamic Hashing In dynamic hashing the addresses of the buckets were either the n high-order bits or n − 1 high-order bits, depending on the total number of keys belonging to the respective bucket. Dynamic hashing maintains a tree-structured directory with two types of nodes: Internal nodes that have two pointers—the left pointer corresponding to the 0 bit (in the hashed address) and a right pointer corresponding to the 1 bit. Leaf nodes—these hold a pointer to the actual bucket with records.

30. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Dynamic Hashing

31. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Linear Hashing The idea behind linear hashing is to allow a hash file to expand and shrink its number of buckets dynamically without needing a directory. Overflow because of collisions is still needed and can be handled by maintaining individual overflow chains for each bucket. when a collision leads to an overflow record in any file bucket, the first bucket in the file—bucket 0—is split into two buckets: the original bucket 0 and a new bucket M at the end of the file. The records originally in bucket 0 are distributed between the two buckets based on a different hashing function hi+1(K) = K mod 2M. A key property of the two hash functions hi and hi+1 is that any records that hashed to bucket 0 based on hi will hash to either bucket 0 or bucket M based on hi+1; If enough overflows occur, all the original file buckets 0, 1,..., M− 1 will have been split, so the file now has 2M instead of M buckets, and all buckets use the hash function hi+1.

32. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Parallelizing Disk Access using RAID Technology. Secondary storage technology must take steps to keep up in performance and reliability with processor technology. A major advance in secondary storage technology is represented by the development of RAID, which originally stood for Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks. The main goal of RAID is to even out the widely different rates of performance improvement of disks against those in memory and microprocessors.

33. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Improving Performance with RAID A natural solution is a large array of small independent disks acting as a single higher-performance logical disk. A concept called data striping is used, which utilizes parallelism to improve disk performance. Data striping distributes data transparently over multiple disks to make them appear as a single large, fast disk. bit-level data striping consists of splitting a byte of data and writing bit j to the jth disk. block-level striping.

34. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Improving Reliability with RAID For an array of n disks, the likelihood of failure is n times as much as that for one disk. Keeping a single copy of data in such an array of disks will cause a significant loss of reliability. An obvious solution is to employ redundancy of data so that disk failures can be tolerated. The disadvantages? One technique for introducing redundancy is called mirroring or shadowing. Data is written redundantly to two identical physical disks that are treated as one logical disk. When data is read, it can be retrieved from the disk with shorter queuing, seek, and rotational delays. Disk mirroring also doubles the rate at which read requests are handled, since a read can go to either disk. The transfer rate of each read, however, remains the same as that for a single disk.

35. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Improving Reliability with RAID Another solution is to store extra information that is not normally needed but that can be used to reconstruct the lost information in case of disk failure. The incorporation of redundancy must consider two problems: selecting a technique for computing the redundant information, addressed by using error-correcting codes involving parity bits, or specialized codes such as Hamming codes. selecting a method of distributing the redundant information across the disk array. Two major approaches are either to store the redundant information on a small number of disks or to distribute it uniformly across all disks.

36. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe RAID Technology (cont.) Different raid organizations were defined based on different combinations of the two factors of granularity of data interleaving (striping) and pattern used to compute redundant information. Raid level 0 has no redundant data and hence has the best write performance at the risk of data loss Raid level 1 uses mirrored disks. Raid level 2 uses memory-style redundancy by using Hamming codes, which contain parity bits for distinct overlapping subsets of components. Level 2 includes both error detection and correction. Raid level 3 uses a single parity disk relying on the disk controller to figure out which disk has failed. Raid Levels 4 and 5 use block-level data striping, with level 5 distributing data and parity information across all disks. Raid level 6 applies the so-called P + Q redundancy scheme using Reed-Soloman codes to protect against up to two disk failures by using just two redundant disks.

37. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Use of RAID Technology (cont.) Different raid organizations are being used under different situations Raid level 1 (mirrored disks) is the easiest for rebuild of a disk from other disks It is used for critical applications like logs Raid level 2 uses memory-style redundancy by using Hamming codes, which contain parity bits for distinct overlapping subsets of components. Level 2 includes both error detection and correction. Raid level 3 (single parity disks relying on the disk controller to figure out which disk has failed) and level 5 (block-level data striping) are preferred for Large volume storage, with level 3 giving higher transfer rates. Most popular uses of the RAID technology currently are: Level 0 (with striping), Level 1 (with mirroring) and Level 5 with an extra drive for parity. Design Decisions for RAID include: Level of RAID, number of disks, choice of parity schemes, and grouping of disks for block-level striping.

38. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Use of RAID Technology (cont.)