1. Ellis’ Principles of Instructed Language Learning
Una Cunningham

2. Controversies in language education
The value of focus on forms instruction (as opposed to focus on form)
The value of teaching explicit knowledge about the L2
What type of corrective feedback works best for acquisition

3. The Eleven Principles of Instructed Language Learning
Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule- based competence.
Instruction need to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning.
Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.
Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 but should not neglect explicit knowledge.
Instruction needs to take account of the learner’s built-in syllabus.

4. Eleven Principles of Instructed Language Learning (cont.)
Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input.
Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output.
The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency.
Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners.
Instruction needs to take account of the fact that there is a subjective aspect to learning a new language.
When assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production.

5. Principle 1 Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence.

6. Formulaic Expressions
I don’t know.
I don’t understand.
I don’t want ___.
Can I have __?
What’s your name?
I’m very sorry.
No thank you.
How much does ___ cost?

7. Formulaic Expressions
Necessary for fluency (Skehan)
Native speakers use a wide range of formulaic expressions (Foster 2001)
Classroom studies show that learners often internalize rote-learned material as chunks
Functional syllabuses can serve as a basis for teaching formulaic chunks
Learners develop ‘rules’ through analyzing memorized chunks.

8. Rule-Based Competence
Traditionally catered for through a focus- on-forms approach but this may result in learners learning rote-memorized patterns.
Teaching of grammar can be profitably delayed until later.

9. Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning

10. Two senses of ‘focus on meaning’
Semantic meaning (i.e. the meanings of different lexical items or of specific grammatical structures).
Pragmatic meaning (i.e. highly contextualized meanings that arise in acts of communication).
Both types of meaning are important but central to L2 acquisition is a focus on pragmatic meaning.

11. Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.

12. Two types of Focus-on-Form instruction
Intensive (pre-selected linguistic forms)
Extensive (incidental attention to form through corrective feedback)

13. Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge.

14. Implicit Knowledge
Accessed by means of automatic processes
Unconscious
Not verbalizable
Note: The goal of teaching an L2 should be to develop implicit knowledge.

15. Explicit Knowledge
Declarative (i.e. ‘facts’ about language)
Accessed through controlled processing
Conscious
Verbalizable (metalanguage)

16. Developing implicit knowledge
Need to engage learners in communicative activity (via task-based or task-supported teaching) in order to develop implicit knowledge.

17. The role of explicit knowledge
Two possible roles:
As an initial starting point for the development of implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge  implicit knowledge
As a means of developing awareness of what needs to be learned and thus facilitating the processes involved in developing implicit knowledge.
The role of consciousness-raising tasks.

18. Principle 5: Instruction needs to taker into account the learner’s ‘built-in-syllabus’.

19. Two aspects of the ‘built-in syllabus’
Order of acquisition (morpheme studies)
Sequence of acquisition (studies of transitional structures such as negatives and interrogatives)

20. The effect of instruction on the ‘built-in syllabus’
Three groups of studies:
Studies that compared the order of acquisition of instructed and naturalistic learners (e.g. Pica 1983).
Studies comparing the success of instructed and naturalistic learners (e.g. Long 1983).
Studies investigating whether teaching specific structures results in their acquisition (e.g. Pienemann 1989).
General conclusion – instruction works but only if it is compatible with natural processes of acquisition.

21. Ways of accommodating instruction to the ‘built-in syllabus’
The zero grammar approach (i.e. adopt a task-based approach).
Teach grammatical structures that learners are ready to acquire.
Teach explicit rather than implicit knowledge – explicit knowledge is not subject to the same developmental constraints.

22. Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input.

23. Comprehensible Input
Krashen – input must be comprehensible to work for acquisition:
Simplified input
Contextualized input
Amount and quality of input accounts for rate of acquisition.
But comprehensible input may not be sufficient to ensure native-like competence.

24. Strategies for giving learners access to extensive input
Maximise use of the L2 inside the classroom – use L2 for framework as well as core goals.
Create opportunities for students to receive input outside the classroom – through extensive reading programmes, self-access centres and learner–training.

25. Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output.

26. How output can contribute to L2 acquisition (Skehan; Ellis)
Production serves to generate better input through the feedback that learners’ efforts at production elicit;
it forces syntactic processing (i.e. obliges learners to pay attention to grammar);
it allows learners to test out hypotheses about the target language grammar;
it helps to automatize existing knowledge;
it provides opportunities for learners to develop discourse skills, for example by producing ‘long turns’;
It is important for helping learners to develop a ‘personal voice’ by steering conversation on to topics they are interested in contributing to.
it provides the learner with ‘auto-input’ (i.e. learners can attend to the ‘input’ provided by their own productions).

27. The importance of ‘pushed output’ (Swain)
Little pushed output in classrooms where there is an emphasis on:
Controlled practice exercises
Few opportunities for extended talk
Value of task-based language teaching and group work in providing opportunities for pushed output.
(Swain proposed that the kind of output necessary to promote L2 development involves learners being pushed in their output. That is, it was observed that the learners had developed strategies for communicating in French simply in order to be understood by their teachers and peers. They had, however, 'little social or cognitive pressure to produce language that reflects more appropriately or precisely their intended meaning: there is no push to be more comprehensible than they already are' (Swain, 1985, p. 249))

28. Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency.

29. The Role of Interaction in L2 Acquisition
‘One learns how to do conversation, one learns how to interact verbally, and out of the interaction syntactic structures are developed’ (Hatch)
Interaction Hypothesis (Long): negotiating for meaning aids acquisition by:
Making input comprehensible
Providing corrective feedback
Output modification: scaffolding.

30. Key requirements for interaction to create an acquisition-rich classroom (Johnson)
Creating contexts of language use where students have a reason to attend to language
Providing opportunities for learners to use the language to express their own personal meanings
Helping students to participate in language-related activities that are beyond their current level of proficiency
Offering a full range of contexts that cater for a ‘full performance’ in the language.
Johnson argues these are more likely when the academic task structure and social participation structure are less rigid.

31. Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners.

32. Key individual difference factors
Language aptitude
Motivation

33. Language Aptitude
Learners have different types of language aptitude (e.g. analytical vs. memory-based).
Teachers can cater to variation in their students’ aptitude by means of:
Learner-instruction matching
Using a variety of learning activities
Providing learner training to encourage flexible learning approach (cf. good language learner studies)

34. Motivation
Teachers also need to accept that it is their responsibility to ensure that their students are motivated and stay motivated and not bewail the fact that students do not bring any motivation to learn the L2 to the classroom. While it is probably true that teachers can do little to influence students’ extrinsic motivation, there is a lot they can do to enhance their intrinsic motivation.

35. Principle 10: Instruction needs to take account of the fact that there is a subjective aspect to learning a new language

36. A new symbolic form
Learning a new language is not just a question of developing communicative ability but, potentially at least, an opportunity to acquire a new symbolic form.
Learners have the opportunity to develop their subjective selves by taking on new identities and even a new personality.

37. Developing symbolic competence
This requires instructional activities that encourage language play and emotional identification with the language:
through the introduction of literature and creative writing into the L2 curriculum.
ensuring that a lesson has both predictability and unpredictability
transgressing the conventions of language use by using it in absurd ways
the teacher demonstrating how he/she has dealt with being multilingual
recognizing the value of silence
above all encouraging personal expression in the language.

38. Principle 11: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production.

39. Four Types of Measurement (Norris and Ortega)
metalinguistic judgement (e.g. a grammaticality judgment test)
selected response (e.g. multiple choice)
constrained constructed response (e.g. gap filling exercises)
free constructed response (e.g. a communicative task).
Magnitude of effect of instruction greatest in the case of (2) and (3) and least in (4). Yet, arguably, it is (4) that constitutes the best measure of learners’ L2 proficiency

40. Using tasks to assess learners’ free production
The performance elicited by means of tasks can be assessed in three ways: (1) a direct assessment of task outcomes, (2) discourse analytic measures (3) external ratings. (1) is the most practical method for the classroom teacher.

41. References
Dornyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, Rod. (2008). Principles of Instructed Second Language Acquisition. CAL Digests. Available at: Foster, P. (2001). Rules and routines: A consideration of their role in task-based language production of native and non-native speakers. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching, and testing (pp ). London: Pearson. Hatch, E. (1978). Discourse analysis and second language acquisition. In E. Hatch (Ed.), Second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury. Johnson, K. (1995). Understanding communication in second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis. Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman. Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal, 73, Long, M. (1983). Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of the research. TESOL Quarterly, 17, 359‑382. Long, M. (1983). Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of the research. TESOL Quarterly, 17, 359‑382. Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp ). San Diego: Academic Press. Norris, J., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50, Pica, T. (1983). Adult acquisition of English as a second language under different conditions of exposure. Language Learning, 33, Pienemann, M. (1989). Is language teachable? Psycholinguistic experiments and hypotheses. Applied Linguistics, 10, Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input and second language acquisition (pp ). Rowley, MA: Newbury.