1. Biological Beginnings
The Evolutionary Perspective
Genetic Foundations of Development
Heredity and Environment interaction:
The Nature-Nurture Debate
Prenatal Development
Birth

2. The Evolutionary Perspective
Natural selection and adaptive behavior:
Darwin and his observations.
All organisms must adapt in life.
Evolutionary psychology:
Emphasizes adaptation, reproduction,
and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior.
Evolution explains human physical features
and behaviors.

3. The Evolutionary Perspective
Natural selection and adaptive behavior:
Darwin and his observations.
All organisms must adapt in life.
Evolutionary psychology:
Emphasizes adaptation, reproduction,
and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior.
Evolution explains human physical features and behaviors.
Explaining humans and their behavior:
Larger brains and more complex societies.
Takes longest of all mammals to mature.
Some evolved mechanisms of adaptation not
compatible with modern society.

4. Evolution and Life-Span Development
The Evolutionary Perspective
Evolution and Life-Span Development
Benefits of evolutionary selection decrease with age.
As adults weaken biologically, culture-based needs increase.

5. Genetic Foundations of Development
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Chromosomes: Thread-like structures
Genes: Units of hereditary information
Human Genome Project: 30,000 genes in humans.

6. Cells, Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
Genetic Foundations
Cells, Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
Nucleus (center of cell) contains chromosomes and genes
Gene: a segment of DNA (spiraled double chain) containing the hereditary code
Chromosomes are threadlike structures composed of DNA molecules

7. The Collaborative Gene
Genetic Foundations
The Collaborative Gene
Mitosis: Cell nucleus duplicates.
Meiosis: Cell division forms gametes.
Fertilization: Egg and sperm form zygote.
Genetic variability in the population.
X and Y chromosomes determine sex.
Genes and chromosomes:
Identical and fraternal twins
Mutated gene
Genotype-All of one’s genetic makeup
Phenotype-Observable characteristics

8. Genetic Principles Sex-linked genes:
Genetic Foundations
Genetic Principles
Sex-linked genes:
X-linked inheritance for males and females.
Poly-genetically determined characteristics:
Many genes interact to influence a trait.
Sex-linked chromosome abnormalities:
Down Syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome- (males-extra X chromosome)
Fragile X syndrome- (abnormality in X chromosome)
Turner syndrome- (females-extra X chromosome)
XYY syndrome- (males-extra Y chromosome)

9. Gene-Linked Abnormalities
Genetic Foundations
Gene-Linked Abnormalities
PKU: phenylketonuria
Sickle-cell anemia
Cystic fibrosis
Diabetes
Hemophilia
Genetic disorders can sometimes be
compensated for by other genes or events.
Behavior Genetics:
Studies influence of heredity and environment on individual differences.
Studies use twins or adoptees:
Monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
Adoption study: examine behavior and psychological characteristics.

10. Heredity-Environment Correlations
Heredity, Environment, and Individual Differences
Heredity-Environment Correlations
In infancy, environment mostly controlled by parents.
As children age, their experiences extend
more beyond the family’s influence.

11. The Course of Prenatal Development
Germinal period: 2 weeks after conception
Embryonic period: 2 to 8 weeks after conception
Three layers: endodem, mesoderm, ectoderm
Umbilical cord connect to placenta
Organogenesis
Fetal period
From 2 months after conception to birth
Trimesters of pregnancy

12. The three trimesters of prenatal development
Second trimester
Third trimester
First trimester
0 - 4 weeks
Less than 1 inch long
12 weeks
32 weeks
8 weeks
Less than 1/10th of inch long
16½ -18 inches, wt: 4-5 lbs
3 inches long, wt: 1 ounce
16 weeks
5.5 inches long, wt: 4 ounces
20 weeks
10-12 inches, wt: ½ -1 lbs
24 weeks
11-14 inches, wt: 1-1½ lbs
36-38 weeks
28 weeks
19 inches, wt: 6 lbs
14-17 inches, wt: 2½ -3 lbs

13. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests
Prenatal Development
Prenatal Diagnostic Tests
Ultrasound Sonography
Chorionic Villi Sampling:
Small sample of placenta taken.
Amniocentesis:
Samples amniotic fluid.
Maternal blood test

14. Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratogen: Agent causing birth defects.
Severity of damage affected by:
Dose
Genetic susceptibility
Time of exposure

15. Teratogen Types of Teratogens Adverse Effects Prescription Drugs:
Adverse Effects
Prescription Drugs:
Thalidomide
Arm and leg malformation
Warfarin
Mental retardation, microcephaly(abnormally small head)
Trimethadione
Developmental delay, ‘V’-shaped eyebrows, cleft lip and/or palate
Tetracycline
Tooth malformations
Substances of Abuse:
Heroin
Fetal/newborn addiction, slower growth
Cocaine
Growth retardation; possible long-term behavioral effects
Solvents
Microcephaly
Social Drugs:
Alcohol
Fetal alcohol syndrome, fetal alcohol effects
Smoking
Spontaneous abortion, growth retardation
Caffeine
Few human studies. high doses induce abnormalities in animals.
Disease:
Rubella
Cataracts, deafness, heart defects
Herpes Simplex
Microcephaly, microophthalmia (abnormally small or absent eyes, associated with blindness)
Teratogen

16. Prenatal Development

17. Hazards to Prenatal Development
Psychoactive drugs:
Caffeine
Alcohol and fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
Nicotine’s link to SIDS, ADHD, low birth weight
Effect of father’s smoking
Cocaine, marijuana, and heroin
Methamphetamine
Environmental hazards and pollutants.
Incompatible blood types of parents:
Rh-positive and Rh-negative
Maternal diseases like German measles, syphilis, HIV and AIDS
Other prenatal factors:
Nutrition, prenatal education and care
Maternal age and risks
Maternal emotional states and stress
Paternal factors
Environmental factors

18. Prenatal Care Prenatal programs: Education Medical care
Birth
Prenatal Care
Prenatal programs:
Education
Medical care
Social and nutritional services
Low birth weight and infant mortality rates
View of pregancy vary among cultures
and ethnic groups

19. The Birth Process Stages of birth: Stage 1-Uterine contractions
Stage 2-Baby’s head moves through birth
canal
Stage 3-Afterbirth when placenta,
umbilical cord, and other membranes
are detached and expelled

20. Strategies for Childbirth
Home delivery, birthing center, or hospital?
99% of all U.S. births occur in hospitals
Home births more common outside U.S.
Doula as caregiver
Role of midwife, nurse, and physician

21. Birth
Methods of Delivery
Medication with analgesics (epidural block, oxytocics, etc.)
Possible effects of drugs on fetus
Natural childbirth
Prepared childbirth and the Lamaze method
Cesarean sections for breech babies,
other risks and benefits
Nonmedicated techniques:
Waterbirth more in European countries
Massage reduces pain and anxiety
Acupuncture is standard in China
Hypnosis has some positive effects
Music therapy reduces stress, manages pain

22. Birth
Assessing the Newborn
Apgar Scale: Evaluates heart, reflexes, and color.
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (BNBAS): Sensitive index of neurological competence.
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS): Analysis of behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities.

23. Low Birth Weight and Preterm
Low birth weight infants:
Weigh less than 5.5 lbs
Very low birth weight:
Less than 3 lbs
Preterm infants:
35 or fewer weeks after conception (about 12% of U.S. births)
Kangaroo care:
Hold infant to promote skin-to-skin contact between infant and caregiver to promote-
Better breathing
Longer sleep periods
Weight gain
Less crying
Longer periods of alertness

24. Massage Therapy Leeds to 47% greater weight gain for preterm infants.
Birth
Massage Therapy
Leeds to 47% greater weight gain for preterm infants.
Other Benefits:
Labor pain
Asthma
ADHD
Arthritis
Autistic children