1. Prof. dr. sc. Danica Škara University of Split dskara@ffst.hr Week 5: Metaphor and its role in categorization and conceptualization in language

2. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE/METAPHORS Metaphors are very powerful and natural cognitive processes, which help us to understand the complex issues in nature and society. Metaphors are very powerful and natural cognitive processes, which help us to understand the complex issues in nature and society. Metaphors can be described as mediators between the human mind and culture. New metaphors change both the ordinary language we use and the ways in which we perceive and understand the world. Metaphors can be described as mediators between the human mind and culture. New metaphors change both the ordinary language we use and the ways in which we perceive and understand the world.

3. Metaphors cause the audience to see things in a new light. In politics, the explanatory function of metaphors is often subjected to the goal of manipulation, which means that metaphors are often primarily selected for their emotional and strategic effect. Metaphors cause the audience to see things in a new light. In politics, the explanatory function of metaphors is often subjected to the goal of manipulation, which means that metaphors are often primarily selected for their emotional and strategic effect. Prime candidates in political speeches in general are metaphorical links with familiar words, e.g. WIND (e.g. the new breeze, wind of change), ILLNESS metaphors, e.g. Prime candidates in political speeches in general are metaphorical links with familiar words, e.g. WIND (e.g. the new breeze, wind of change), ILLNESS metaphors, e.g. Our country can be healthy; it has friends, allies and enemies.

4. Cognitive Linguistic theories see metaphor as basic to human cognition and language behavior (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1987) Political mind: http://fora.tv/2008/06/20/George_Lakoff_on_The_Political_Mind Political mind: http://fora.tv/2008/06/20/George_Lakoff_on_The_Political_Mind http://fora.tv/2008/06/20/George_Lakoff_on_The_Political_Mind Metaphors are necessary for our basic grasp of time, evaluation, emotions and so on Go back in time in the distant future in a black mood their hot love cooled

5. What is a metaphor? Metaphor is usually used to compare two unlike things, which in result improve our understanding. Metaphor is usually used to compare two unlike things, which in result improve our understanding. Metaphor can be used as “filter” for our perceptions. If inaccurately used, they may distort information or cause false generalizations. Metaphor can be used as “filter” for our perceptions. If inaccurately used, they may distort information or cause false generalizations.

6. G. Lakoff: (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1987) G. Lakoff: (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1987) Lakoff argues that our worldviews are based largely on different frames that provide us with structure for our thinking. ‘Because conservatives have framed political debate in their own terms for the past few decades, our country—and its politics—are now based on a conservative worldview. In order for progressives to create change, they must re-frame the way we think about politics, ourselves, and America.’ ‘Because conservatives have framed political debate in their own terms for the past few decades, our country—and its politics—are now based on a conservative worldview. In order for progressives to create change, they must re-frame the way we think about politics, ourselves, and America.’

7. Every word evokes a frame. A frame is a conceptual structure used in thinking. The word elephant evokes a frame with an image of an elephant and certain knowledge: an elephant is a large animal (a mammal) with large floppy ears, a trunk that functions like both a nose and a hand, large stump-like legs, and so on. Every word evokes a frame. A frame is a conceptual structure used in thinking. The word elephant evokes a frame with an image of an elephant and certain knowledge: an elephant is a large animal (a mammal) with large floppy ears, a trunk that functions like both a nose and a hand, large stump-like legs, and so on. Every frame is realized in the brain by neural circuitry. Every time a neural circuit is activated, it is strengthened. Every frame is realized in the brain by neural circuitry. Every time a neural circuit is activated, it is strengthened. The more abstract the idea, the more layers of "framing" or analogy are required to explain the concept. The more abstract the idea, the more layers of "framing" or analogy are required to explain the concept.

8. Definition of metaphor The essence of metaphor is understanding one kind of thing in terms of another. It has been described in terms of transfer from one cognitive domain (donor) to another (recipient) domain: People tend to draw upon experiences in one area of life in order to give fresh insights and understanding to experiences in another, creating new conceptual realities, e.g. Life is battle. It has been described in terms of transfer from one cognitive domain (donor) to another (recipient) domain: People tend to draw upon experiences in one area of life in order to give fresh insights and understanding to experiences in another, creating new conceptual realities, e.g. Life is battle. the wolf in a sheep’s clothing.. the wolf in a sheep’s clothing..

9. Example in Conventional Language the ‘ARGUMENT IS WAR’ metaphor the ‘ARGUMENT IS WAR’ metaphor She attacked every weak point in my argument. She attacked every weak point in my argument. Your claims are indefensible. Your claims are indefensible. They had to surrender to the force of our arguments. They had to surrender to the force of our arguments. I’ve never won an argument with him. I’ve never won an argument with him. Other terms: strategy, barrage of words, winning/losing an argument Other terms: strategy, barrage of words, winning/losing an argument Being in an argument is viewed (and talked about) in terms of fighting a war. Being in an argument is viewed (and talked about) in terms of fighting a war.

10. Two important points about metaphor: Two important points about metaphor: is a tool of cognition, i.e. helps us to conceptualise the world is a tool of cognition, i.e. helps us to conceptualise the world Allows us to deal with abstractions by conceptualising them in terms of something more concrete/basic/perceptual in our experience of the world Allows us to deal with abstractions by conceptualising them in terms of something more concrete/basic/perceptual in our experience of the world

11. Metaphorical Mapping (terminology) A metaphor is a relation between two disparate domains A metaphor is a relation between two disparate domains (Conceptual) Domain – any kind of coherent organization of experience (Conceptual) Domain – any kind of coherent organization of experience Source – domain from which the metaphors are drawn Source – domain from which the metaphors are drawn Target – domain that we are trying to understand, or where the concepts from the source domains are applied Target – domain that we are trying to understand, or where the concepts from the source domains are applied

12. Source/Target relations (2) A metaphor is a relation between two disparate domains. Conventional metaphors are stored domain relations. A metaphor is a relation between two disparate domains. Conventional metaphors are stored domain relations. A target domain can be conceptualised from more than one source domain. A target domain can be conceptualised from more than one source domain. ARGUMENT IS A BUILDING metaphor ARGUMENT IS A BUILDING metaphor Source domain  Target domain ARGUMENT  BUILDING ARGUMENT  BUILDING Your argument has a strong foundation We demolished their theory

13. Time Examples REMEMBER: direction of metaphors typically go from basic/perceptual domains to more abstract domains REMEMBER: direction of metaphors typically go from basic/perceptual domains to more abstract domains Concept of time is abstract Concept of time is abstract TIME is MONEY metaphor TIME is MONEY metaphor You’re wasting my time. You’re wasting my time. You need to budget your time. You need to budget your time. How do you spend your time these days? How do you spend your time these days? You don’t use your time profitably. You don’t use your time profitably. Time is a valuable commodity, it is in finite supply Time is a valuable commodity, it is in finite supply

14. UP is MORE metaphor MORE IS UP LESS IS DOWN

15. MORE is UP CONSCIOUS IS UP - UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN CONSCIOUS IS UP - UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN Wake up - He fell asleep Wake up - He fell asleep HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP - SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP - SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN He's at the peak of health - He came down with the flu. He's at the peak of health - He came down with the flu. HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP - BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL OR FORCE IS DOWN HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP - BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL OR FORCE IS DOWN I am on top of this situation - He fell from power. I am on top of this situation - He fell from power. MORE QUANTITY IS UP - LESS QUANTITY IS DOWN MORE QUANTITY IS UP - LESS QUANTITY IS DOWN The number of books printed every year keeps going up - The number of errors he made is incredibly low. The number of books printed every year keeps going up - The number of errors he made is incredibly low. HIGH STATUS IS UP - LOW STATUS IS DOWN HIGH STATUS IS UP - LOW STATUS IS DOWN

16. She'll rise to the top - She fell in status. She'll rise to the top - She fell in status. GOOD IS UP - BAD IS DOWN GOOD IS UP - BAD IS DOWN Things are looking up - Things are at an all-time low. Things are looking up - Things are at an all-time low. VIRTUE IS UP - DEPRAVITY IS DOWN VIRTUE IS UP - DEPRAVITY IS DOWN She is an upstanding citizen - That was a low-down thing to do. She is an upstanding citizen - That was a low-down thing to do. UNKNOWN IS UP - KNOWN IS DOWN UNKNOWN IS UP - KNOWN IS DOWN That's up in the air - The matter is settled. That's up in the air - The matter is settled.

17. Metaphor in categorisation and conceptualisation Metaphors are most of the time below our level of conscious awareness. Metaphors are most of the time below our level of conscious awareness. “Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:3) “Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:3)

18. Summary of Metaphor in Language Metaphors are mappings across conceptual domains. Each mapping is a fixed set of correspondences between entities in a source domain and entities in a target domain. Metaphors are mappings across conceptual domains. Each mapping is a fixed set of correspondences between entities in a source domain and entities in a target domain. Mappings are not arbitrary, but grounded in the body and in everyday experience and knowledge. Mappings are not arbitrary, but grounded in the body and in everyday experience and knowledge.

19. Metaphor allows us to understand a relatively abstract or inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete, or at least a more highly structured subject matter. Metaphor is the main mechanism through which we comprehend abstract concepts and perform abstract reasoning. Metaphor allows us to understand a relatively abstract or inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete, or at least a more highly structured subject matter. Metaphor is the main mechanism through which we comprehend abstract concepts and perform abstract reasoning. Metaphor is fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in nature. Metaphor is fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in nature. (From George Lakoff. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor) (From George Lakoff. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor)

20. Body metaphors Man is the measure of all things (proverb) When the body is mentioned in literature, philosophy or similar disciplines, it is often conceptualized as a plant, an animal, a cage or confinement of the soul, a machine, a container of emotions, a computer, a communication network, etc. When the body is mentioned in literature, philosophy or similar disciplines, it is often conceptualized as a plant, an animal, a cage or confinement of the soul, a machine, a container of emotions, a computer, a communication network, etc. Plato describes humankind as a ‘heavenly plant.’ (family tree, the root of the tooth...). Women are often perceived as fragile flowers. Plato describes humankind as a ‘heavenly plant.’ (family tree, the root of the tooth...). Women are often perceived as fragile flowers. The human body is often addressed as a metaphor for society (e.g. the head of the state, the face of the law, a legislative body, etc.) The human body is often addressed as a metaphor for society (e.g. the head of the state, the face of the law, a legislative body, etc.)

21. the body parts have individual functions. They can become symbolic models of stable meanings in different parts of one’s experience, e.g. the body parts have individual functions. They can become symbolic models of stable meanings in different parts of one’s experience, e.g. head> the seat of the intellect; director, leader; a container of thoughts, ideas, memories. head> the seat of the intellect; director, leader; a container of thoughts, ideas, memories. heart >the seat of emotion (sadness, fear, and love) and the center of bravery heart >the seat of emotion (sadness, fear, and love) and the center of bravery hand > power/control, e.g. to have someone in one’s hands hand > power/control, e.g. to have someone in one’s hands

22. heart Metaphorically, it refers to a person’s character, or the place within a person where their feelings or emotions (sadness, surprise, fear, love…) are considered to come. It is also the center of bravery/courage: You are doing really well-don’t lose heart now. (=courage), You are doing really well-don’t lose heart now. (=courage), to break someone’s heart (=to cause emotional pain) to break someone’s heart (=to cause emotional pain) In some languages heart is considered as the centre of the soul (heart=soul), e.g. Croatian: On je prava dusa (= soul). > She is all heart. In some languages heart is considered as the centre of the soul (heart=soul), e.g. Croatian: On je prava dusa (= soul). > She is all heart.

23. Linguistic categorization of the body reveals that all human beings have a common set of conceptual metaphors (universal/generic level metaphors) that are based on the following: common body structure common body structure basic sensory experiences basic sensory experiences common features of social organization and behaviour>common cultural environment common features of social organization and behaviour>common cultural environment common features of the natural environment common features of the natural environment globalization (e.g. global village) globalization (e.g. global village)