1. Singing for Strength: Enslaved Africans and Community Building in the Transatlantic Slave Trade by J. Hunter Moore

2. Barracoon, Sierra Leone, 1840’s From Captive Passage: The Transatlantic Slave Trade…, Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002

3. Jamaican Instruments from Voyage to the Islands Madera by Sir Hans Sloane (1688)

4. Funeral in Annabon, 1841

5. Georgia Prayer Meeting, 1872

6. Cudjo Lewis (d. 1935) with great-granddaughters

8. Enslaved Africans re-created community through singing, helping them to resist the dehumanizing effects of slavery Thesis

9. Singing was a constant feature of community life for Africans Africans identified themselves through social networks Slavery destroyed existing networks, threatening identity Enslaved Africans re-created communities and preserved their identity through singing Main Points

10. First-Hand African Narratives Sibell (?) Olaudah Equiano Igbo land, Nigeria Ottobah Cugoano Gold Coast, Ghana Mahomma Gardo Baquaqua Benin, Upper Volta (all recorded in 18 th century)

11. European Observers Early Portuguese account (1445) Richard Jobson (1620) Gambia River Willem Bosman (1721) Gold Coast Mungo Park (1795) Gambia/Niger Rivers Thomas Bowdich (1816) Gold Coast Hugh Clapperton (1829) Oyo-Yoruba land

12. Slave Ship Accounts Ottomah Cugoano’s account, published in 1787 Capt. William Snelgrave, 1713 Mr. Town, 1768-69 Mr. Janverin, 1767-72 William Butterfield (Henry Schroeder), 1786-87 George Pinckard, 1796 Capt. Hugh Crow, early 1800’s Capt. Theodore Canot, 1830’s and 40’s

13. Celebrations, funerals, rebellions Jamaica Ligon-1673 Sloane-1688, feast days Leslie-funeral, 1740 Nugent-1801, Christmas celebration Funeral rebellion plot-1816 Spanish Colonies-18 th & early 19 th century Dia De Reyes-Havana and Santo Domingo Florida-Laurel Grove-Christmas and crop festivals

14. Celebrations, funerals, rebellions British North America and U.S Stono rebellion, 1739 North Carolina drownings, 1800 New Orleans funeral, 1819 New Orleans group celebration, 1831 Wildfire, 1860 Clotilda, 1860 Sea Islands, 1865